[Federal Register Volume 65, Number 175 (Friday, September 8, 2000)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 54686-54739]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 00-22892]
[[Page 54685]]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Part III
Department of Health and Human Services
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Food and Drug Administration
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
21 CFR Part 101
Food Labeling: Health Claims; Plant Sterol/Stanol Esters and Coronary
Heart Disease; Interim Final Rule
Federal Register / Vol. 65, No. 175 / Friday, September 8, 2000 /
Rules and Regulations
[[Page 54686]]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Food and Drug Administration
21 CFR Part 101
[Docket Nos. 00P-1275 and 00P-1276]
Food Labeling: Health Claims; Plant Sterol/Stanol Esters and
Coronary Heart Disease
AGENCY: Food and Drug Administration, HHS.
ACTION: Interim final rule.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
SUMMARY: The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is authorizing the use,
on food labels and in food labeling, of health claims on the
association between plant sterol/stanol esters and reduced risk of
coronary heart disease (CHD). FDA is taking this action in response to
a petition filed by Lipton (plant sterol esters petitioner) and a
petition filed by McNeil Consumer Healthcare (plant stanol esters
petitioner). Based on the totality of publicly available evidence, the
agency has concluded that plant sterol/stanol esters may reduce the
risk of CHD.
DATES: This rule is effective September 8, 2000. Submit written
comments by November 22, 2000. The Director of the Office of the
Federal Register approves the incorporation by reference in accordance
with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51 of certain publications in 21
CFR 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(A)(2) and (c)(2)(ii)(B)(2), as of September 8,
2000.
ADDRESSES: Submit written comments to the Dockets Management Branch
(HFA-305), Food and Drug Administration, 5630 Fishers Lane, rm. 1061,
Rockville, MD 20852.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Sharon A. Ross, Center for Food Safety
and Applied Nutrition (HFS-832), Food and Drug Administration, 200 C
St. SW., Washington, DC 20204, 202-205-5343.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
I. Background
The President signed into law, on November 8, 1990, the Nutrition
Labeling and Education Act of 1990 (the 1990 amendments) (Public Law
101-535). This new law amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(the act) in number of important ways. One of the most notable aspects
of the 1990 amendments was that they provided procedures whereby FDA is
to regulate health claims on food labels and in food labeling.
In the Federal Register of January 6, 1993 (58 FR 2478), FDA issued
a final rule that implemented the health claim provisions of the act
for conventional foods (hereinafter referred to as the 1993 health
claims final rule). In that final rule, FDA adopted Sec. 101.14 (21 CFR
101.14), which sets out the rules for the authorization of health
claims by regulation and prescribes general requirements for the use of
health claims. Additionally, Sec. 101.70 (21 CFR 101.70) establishes a
process for petitioning the agency to authorize health claims about a
substance-disease relationship (Sec. 101.70(a)) and sets out the types
of information that any such petition must include (Sec. 101.70(d)). On
January 4, 1994 (59 FR 395), FDA issued a final rule applying the
requirements of Secs. 101.14 and 101.70 to health claims for dietary
supplements.
FDA also conducted an extensive review of the evidence on 10
substance-disease relationships listed in the 1990 amendments. As a
result of its review, FDA authorized claims for 8 of these 10
relationships, one of which focused on the relationship between dietary
saturated fat and cholesterol and reduced risk of CHD. CHD is the most
common, most frequently reported, and most serious form of
cardiovascular disease (CVD) (58 FR 2739, January 6, 1993). Further,
while the agency denied the use on food labeling of health claims
relating dietary fiber to reduced risk of CVD (58 FR 2552, January 6,
1993), it authorized a health claim relating fiber-containing fruits,
vegetables, and grain products to a reduced risk of CHD.
In the proposed rule entitled ``Health Claims and Label Statements;
Lipids and Cardiovascular Disease'' (56 FR 60727 at 60727, 60728, and
60732, November 27, 1991), FDA set out the criteria for evaluating
evidence on diet and CVD relationships, including the relationship
between diet and CHD. FDA noted that, because of the public health
importance of CHD, identification of ``modifiable'' risk factors for
CHD had been the subject of considerable research and public policy
attention. The agency also noted that there is general agreement that
elevated blood cholesterol levels are one of the major modifiable risk
factors in the development of CHD. FDA cited Federal Government and
other reviews that concluded that there is substantial epidemiologic
and clinical evidence that high blood levels of total and low density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol are a cause of atherosclerosis
(inadequate blood circulation due to narrowing of the arteries) and
represent major contributors to CHD. Further, factors that decrease
total blood cholesterol and LDL cholesterol will also decrease the risk
of CHD. FDA concluded that it is generally accepted that blood total
and LDL cholesterol levels are major risk factors for CHD, and that
dietary factors affecting blood cholesterol levels affect the risk of
CHD. High intakes of dietary saturated fat and, to a lesser degree, of
dietary cholesterol are consistently associated with elevated blood
cholesterol levels. FDA concluded that the publicly available data
supported an association between diets low in saturated fat and
cholesterol and reduced risk of CHD (58 FR 2739 at 2751).
The agency has authorized other health claims for reducing the risk
of CHD using the aforementioned criteria. In the final rule entitled
``Health Claims; Dietary Fiber and Cardiovascular Disease'' (58 FR
2552), FDA concluded that the publicly available scientific information
supported an association between fruits, vegetables, and grain products
(i.e., foods that are low in saturated fat and cholesterol and that are
good sources of dietary fiber) and reduced risk of CHD through the
intermediate link of blood cholesterol (58 FR 2552 at 2572) (codified
at Sec. 101.77)). In response to two petitions documenting that dietary
consumption of soluble fiber from beta-glucan from oat products and
psyllium seed husk significantly reduced blood cholesterol levels, FDA
authorized health claims for soluble fiber from certain foods and
reduced risk of CHD in Sec. 101.81 (21 CFR 101.81) (62 FR 3584 at 3600,
January 23, 1997, and amended at 62 FR 15343 at 15344, March 31, 1997,
pertaining to beta-glucan from oat products, and 63 FR 8103 at 8119,
February 18, 1998 pertaining to psyllium seed husk). More recently, FDA
authorized a health claim for soy protein and reduced risk of CHD in
Sec. 101.82 (21 CFR 101.82) (64 FR 57700, October 26, 1999). In the
final rule authorizing the claim, the agency concluded, based on the
totality of publicly available scientific evidence, that there is
significant scientific agreement that soy protein, included at a level
of 25 grams (g) per day (d) in a diet low in saturated fat and
cholesterol, can help reduce total and LDL cholesterol levels, and that
such reductions may reduce the risk of CHD (64 FR 57700 at 57713). The
dietary fiber and CVD (56 FR 60582 at 60583 and 60587, November 27,
1991), soluble fiber from beta-glucan from oat products and CHD (61 FR
296 at 298, January 4, 1996), soluble fiber from psyllium seed husk and
CHD (62 FR 28234 at 28236 and 28237, May 22, 1997), and soy protein and
CHD (63 FR 62977 at 62979 and 62980, November 10, 1998) health claim
reviews in the proposed rules were conducted in accordance with the
[[Page 54687]]
1991 criteria for evaluating the evidence between diet and CHD (56 FR
60727 at 60727, 60728, and 60732.
The present rulemaking is in response to two health claim
petitions. One health claim petition concerns the relationship between
plant sterol esters and the risk of CHD, and the other concerns the
relationship between plant stanol esters and the risk of CHD. Although
the plant sterol esters petition characterizes the petitioned substance
as vegetable oil sterol esters, FDA believes it is more accurately
characterized as plant sterol esters. The petition states that
vegetable oil sterol esters consist of esterified plant sterols (Ref.
1, page 3). The petition also mentions that canola oil is one of the
oils used as a source for the sterol component of vegetable oil sterol
esters (Ref. 1, page 82). Canola oil is derived from a seed (rapeseed).
Although seeds are clearly part of the plant kingdom, they are not
ordinarily thought of as vegetables. Therefore, FDA is concerned that
the term ``vegetable oil sterol esters'' may not be understood to cover
esterified sterols from sources like canola oil. Accordingly, the
agency is using the term ``plant sterol esters'' throughout this
document. For purposes of this rule, plant sterol esters and plant
stanol esters will be referred to collectively as ``plant sterol/stanol
esters.''
II. Petitions for Plant Sterol/Stanol Esters and Reduced Risk of
CHD
A. Background
Lipton submitted a health claim petition to FDA on February 1,
2000, requesting that the agency authorize a health claim on the
relationship between consumption of certain plant sterol ester-
containing foods and the risk of CHD (Refs.1 through 4). Specifically,
Lipton requested that spreads and dressings for salad\1\ containing at
least 1.6 grams of plant sterol esters per reference amount customarily
consumed be authorized to bear a health claim about reduced risk of
CHD. On May 11, 2000, the agency sent this petitioner a letter stating
that FDA had decided to file the petition for further review (Ref. 5).
On June 26, 2000, Lipton submitted a request asking FDA to exercise its
authority under section 403(r)(7) of the act (21 U.S.C. 343(r)(7)) to
make any proposed regulation for its petitioned health claim effective
upon publication, pending consideration of public comment and
publication of a final rule (Ref. 6). If the agency does not act, by
either denying the petition or issuing a proposed regulation to
authorize the health claim, within 90 days of the date of filing, the
petition is deemed to be denied unless an extension is mutually agreed
upon by the agency and the petitioner (section 403(r)(4)(a)(i) of the
act and 21 CFR 101.70(j)(3)(iii)). On August 2, 2000, FDA and the plant
sterol ester petitioner agreed to an extension of 30 days, until
September 6, 2000 (Ref. 7).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The agency is using the term ``dressings for salad''
throughout this document in lieu of the term ``salad dressing'' used
by the petitioners because the standard of identity for ``salad
dressing'' in Sec. 169.150 (21 CFR 164.150) refers to a limited
class of dressings for salad, i.e., those that contain egg yolk and
meet certain other specifications. ``Salad dressing'' as defined in
Sec. 169.150 does not include a number of common types of dressings
for salad, such as Italian dressing.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
On February 15, 2000, McNeil Consumer Healthcare submitted a health
claim petition to FDA requesting that the agency authorize a health
claim on the relationship between consumption of plant stanol ester-
containing foods and dietary supplements and the risk of CHD (Refs. 8
through 14). On May 25, 2000, the agency sent this petitioner a letter
stating that FDA had decided to file the petition for further review
(Ref. 15). On June 14, 2000, McNeil Consumer Healthcare submitted a
request asking FDA to exercise its authority under section 403(r)(7) of
the act to make any proposed regulation for its petitioned health claim
effective upon publication, pending consideration of public comment and
publication of a final rule (Ref. 16). On July 17, 2000, FDA and the
plant stanol ester petitioner agreed to an extension of the deadline to
publish a proposed regulation until September 6, 2000 (Ref. 17).
In this interim final rule, the agency concludes that a health
claim about plant sterol/stanol esters and reduced risk of CHD should
be authorized under the standard in section 403(r)(3)(B)(i) of the act
and Sec. 101.14(c) of FDA's regulations and should be made effective
upon publication under section 403(r)(7) of the act, pending
consideration of public comment and publication of a final regulation.
The agency is requesting comments on this interim final rule. Firms
should be aware that a final rule on this health claim may differ from
this interim final rule and that they would be required to revise their
labels to conform to any changes adopted in the final rule.
B. Review of Preliminary Requirements for a Health Claim
1. The Substances Are Associated With a Disease for Which the U.S.
Population Is at Risk
Several previous rules establish that CHD is a disease for which
the U.S. population is at risk. These include rules authorizing claims
for dietary saturated fat and cholesterol and risk of CHD Sec. 101.75
(21 CFR 101.75)); fiber-containing fruits, vegetables, and grain
products and risk of CHD (Sec. 101.77); soluble fiber from certain
foods and risk of CHD (Sec. 101.81); and soy protein and risk of CHD
(Sec. 101.82). FDA stated in these rules that CHD remains a major
public health problem and the number one cause of death in the United
States. Despite the decline in deaths from CHD over the past 30 years,
this disease is still exacting a tremendous toll in morbidity (illness
and disability) and mortality (premature deaths) (Refs. 18 through 20).
There are more than 500,000 deaths each year for which CHD is the
primary cause, and another 250,000 deaths for which CHD is a
contributing cause. About 20 percent of adults (male and female; black
and white) ages 20 to 74 years have blood total cholesterol (or serum
cholesterol) levels in the ``high risk'' category (total cholesterol
greater than (>) 240 milligrams (mg) / deciliter (dL) and LDL
cholesterol > 160mg/dL) (Ref. 21). Another 31 percent have ``borderline
high'' cholesterol levels (total cholesterol between 200 and 239 mg/dL
and LDL cholesterol between 130 and 159 mg/dL) in combination with two
or more other risk factors for CHD.
CHD has a significant effect on health care costs. In 1999, total
direct costs related to CHD were estimated at $53.1 billion, and
indirect costs from loss of productivity due to illness, disability,
and premature deaths from this disease were an estimated $46.7 billion
(Ref. 22). Based on these facts, FDA concludes that, as required in
Sec. 101.14(b)(1), CHD is a disease for which the U.S. population is at
risk.
2. The Substances Are Food
The substances that are the subject of this interim final rule are
plant sterol esters and plant stanol esters (Refs. 1 through 4 and 8
through 14).
a. Plant sterol esters. The substance that is the subject of the
plant sterol ester petition is a mixture of plant sterols esterified to
food-grade fatty acids. The sterols are primarily (beta-sitosterol,
campesterol, and stigmasterol and are extracted from plant sources
(Ref. 1, page 6). Plant sterols occur widely throughout the plant
kingdom
[[Page 54688]]
and are present in many edible fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds,
cereals, and legumes (Refs. 23 and 24). The plant sterols in foods may
occur as either the free sterol or esterified with a fatty acid.
Several studies have estimated dietary plant sterol intake. From a
population in the Los Angeles area, Nair et al. (Ref. 25) found that
plant sterol (beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol) intake ranged from 77.9
mg/d in the general population to 343.6 mg/d in lacto-ovo vegetarians.
The 1991 British diet was estimated to contain about 158 mg/d of
sterols (beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol) (Ref. 26).
Scandinavian vegetarians consume, on average, 513 mg/d and
nonvegetarians 398 mg/d (Ref. 27). Plant sterol intake in the Japanese
diet has been estimated at 373 mg/d (Ref. 28). In an analysis of diets
of participants in the Seven Countries Study, deVries et al. (Ref. 29)
found plant sterol intake (sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol) to
range from 170 mg/d among U.S. railroad workers to 358 mg/d in Corfu,
Greece. In a review, Ling and Jones (Ref. 30) estimated average U.S.
intake at 250 mg/d; it was speculated that this level was doubled among
vegetarians. Thus, plant sterols are a constituent of the diet for
Americans and other population groups.
According to the plant sterol ester petitioner, the solubility of
free sterols in oil is only 2 percent, but the solubility of sterol
esters in oil exceeds 20 percent (Ref. 1, pages 14 and 99). Therefore,
the free plant sterols are esterified with fatty acids from sunflower
to improve solubility. The petitioner also notes that improved
solubility of plant sterols creates a palatable product and is
associated with more uniform distribution in the product and in the
gastrointestinal tract (Ref. 1, page 14). In vegetable oils, typically
between 25 and 80 percent of the sterol is in the ester form (Refs. 31
through 34). One gram of plant sterols is equivalent to about 1.6 g of
plant sterol esters (Refs. 35 and 36).
Under Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(i), the substance that is the subject of a
health claim must contribute taste, aroma, or nutritive value, or any
other technical effect listed in Sec. 170.3(o) (21 CFR 170.3(o)), to
the food and must retain that attribute when consumed at the levels
that are necessary to justify a claim. Plant sterol esters do not
contribute taste, aroma, or any other technical effect listed in
Sec. 170.3(o), and thus the plant sterol esters must contribute
nutritive value to meet the requirement in Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(i).
The term `nutritive value' is defined in Sec. 101.14(a)(3) as
``value in sustaining human existence by such processes as promoting
growth, replacing loss of essential nutrients, or providing energy.''
In the proposed rule entitled ``Labeling; General Requirements for
Health Claims for Food'' (56 FR 60537, November 27, 1991), FDA proposed
this definition and explained its interpretation of nutritive value in
the context of whether a substance is a food and thus appropriately the
subject of a health claim (56 FR 60537 at 60542). The agency indicated
that the definition was formulated based on the common meaning of the
words that make up the term ``nutritive value.'' The agency also added
that use of the phrase ``such processes as'' in the definition of
nutritive value was intended to provide a measure of flexibility that
the agency believed would be necessary in evaluating future petitions.
In the final rule adopting the proposed definition, the agency noted
that the evaluation of the nutritive value of substances would be done
on a case-by-case basis to best ensure that the definition retains its
intended flexibility (58 FR 2478 at 2488). In a subsequent final rule
on health claims for dietary supplements (59 FR 395 at 407), FDA
further explained that nutritive value ``includes assisting in the
efficient functioning of classical nutritional processes and of other
metabolic processes necessary for the normal maintenance of human
existence.''
The scientific evidence suggests that the cholesterol-lowering
effect of plant sterol esters is achieved through an effect on the
digestive process (Ref. 1, pages 62 through 64). The digestive process
is one of the metabolic processes necessary for the normal maintenance
of human existence. Therefore, the agency concludes that the
preliminary requirement of Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(i) is satisfied.
b. Plant stanol esters. The substance that is the subject of the
plant stanol ester petition is a mixture of plant stanols esterified to
food-grade fatty acids. The stanols are primarily sitostanol and
campestanol and may be derived from hydrogenated plant sterol mixtures
or extracted from plant sources (Ref. 8, page 18). Sitostanol and
campestanol occur naturally in small quantities in the lipid fractions
of cereal grains such as wheat, rye, and corn (Refs. 37 through 39) and
in vegetable oils such as corn and olive oil (Refs. 40 and 41). The
average western diet provides 20 to 50 mg of plant stanols daily (Ref.
42).
According to the plant stanol ester petitioner, esterification of
free stanols with fatty acids renders plant stanols readily soluble in
foods and makes an effective vehicle for delivery of plant stanols to
the small intestine (Ref. 8, page 9). One gram of wood-derived plant
stanols is equivalent to about 1.7 g of plant stanol esters (Ref. 43),
and 1 g of vegetable oil plant stanols is equivalent to about 1.8 g of
plant stanol esters (Ref. 43).
As discussed in section II.B.2.a of this document, the substance
that is the subject of a health claim must contribute taste, aroma, or
nutritive value, or any other technical effect listed in Sec. 170.3(o),
to the food and must retain that attribute when consumed at levels that
are necessary to justify a claim (Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(i)). Plant stanol
esters do not contribute taste, aroma or any other technical effect
listed in Sec. 170.3(o) and thus must contribute nutritive value to
meet the requirement in Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(i). The term ``nutritive
value'' is defined in Sec. 101.14(a)(3) as ``value in sustaining human
existence by such processes as promoting growth, replacing loss of
essential nutrients, or providing energy.''
The scientific evidence suggests that the cholesterol-lowering
effect of plant stanol esters is achieved through an effect on the
digestive process (Ref. 8, pages 11 through 12). As discussed in
section II.B.2.a of this document and in the final rule on health
claims for dietary supplements (59 FR 395 at 407), nutritive value
includes assisting in the efficient functioning of classical
nutritional processes and of other metabolic processes necessary for
the normal maintenance of human existence, such as digestive processes.
Therefore, the agency concludes that the preliminary requirement of
Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(i) is satisfied.
3. The Substances Are Safe and Lawful
a. Plant sterol esters. The plant sterol ester petitioner asserts
that plant sterol esters are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for
certain uses. In a submission dated January 11, 1999, the petitioner
informed FDA of its conclusion that plant sterol esters are GRAS for
use in vegetable oil spreads at levels up to 20 percent (corresponding
to 1.6 g of plant sterol esters per serving) to supplement the
nutritive value of the spread, and to help structure the fat phase and
reduce the fat and water content of the spread. The January 11, 1999,
submission included the supporting data on which this conclusion was
based. FDA responded to this submission in a letter dated April 30,
1999 (Ref. 44). In its response, the agency stated, ``Based on its
evaluation, the agency has no questions at this time regarding Lipton's
conclusion that vegetable oil sterol esters are GRAS under the intended
conditions of use. Furthermore, FDA is not aware of any scientific
evidence that
[[Page 54689]]
vegetable oil sterol esters would be harmful. The agency has not,
however, made its own determination regarding the GRAS status of the
subject use of vegetable oil sterol esters'' (Ref. 44). In a letter
dated September 24, 1999, the petitioner informed FDA of an additional
use of plant sterol esters in dressings for salad (Ref. 45). The letter
contained additional safety information to support the new use.
The agency notes that authorization of a health claim for a
substance should not be interpreted as affirmation that the substance
is GRAS. A review of Lipton's January 11, 1999, submission and of its
September 24, 1999, letter to the agency, however, reveals significant
evidence supporting the safety of the use of plant sterol esters at the
levels necessary to justify a health claim. Moreover, FDA is not aware
of any evidence that provides a basis to reject the petitioner's
position that the use of plant sterol esters in spreads and dressings
for salad up to 1.6 g/serving is safe and lawful. As discussed in
section V.B of this document, the level of plant sterol esters
necessary to justify a claim is 1.3 g per day. Therefore, FDA concludes
that the petitioner has satisfied the requirement of
Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(ii) to demonstrate that the use of plant sterol
esters in spreads and dressings for salad at the levels necessary to
justify a claim is safe and lawful.
b. Plant stanol esters. Under the health claim petition process,
FDA evaluates whether the substance is ``safe and lawful'' under the
applicable food safety provisions of the act (Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(ii)).
For conventional foods, this evaluation involves considering whether
the ingredient that is the source of the substance is GRAS, listed as a
food additive, or authorized by a prior sanction issued by FDA (see
Sec. 101.70(f)). Dietary ingredients in dietary supplements, however,
are not subject to the food additive provisions of the act (see section
201(s)(6) of the act (21 U.S.C. 321(s)(6)). Rather, they are subject to
the new dietary ingredient provisions in section 413 of the act (21
U.S.C. 350b) and the adulteration provisions in section 402 of the act
(21 U.S.C. 342). The term ``dietary ingredient'' is defined in section
201(ff)(1) of the act and includes vitamins; minerals; herbs and other
botanicals; dietary substances for use by man to supplement the diet by
increasing the total daily intake; and concentrates, metabolites,
constituents, extracts, and combinations of the preceding ingredients.
A ``new dietary ingredient'' is a dietary ingredient that was not
marketed in the United States before October 15, 1994 (section 413(c)
of the act). If a dietary supplement contains a new dietary ingredient
that has not been present in the food supply as an article used for
food in a form in which the food has not been chemically altered,
section 413(a)(2) of the act requires the manufacturer or distributor
of the supplement to submit to FDA, at least 75 days before the dietary
ingredient is introduced or delivered for introduction into interstate
commerce, information that is the basis on which the manufacturer or
distributor has concluded that a dietary supplement containing such new
dietary ingredient will reasonably be expected to be safe. FDA reviews
this information to determine whether it provides an adequate basis for
such a conclusion. Under section 413(a)(2) of the act, there must be a
history of use or other evidence of safety establishing that the
dietary ingredient, when used under the conditions recommended or
suggested in the labeling of the dietary supplement, will reasonably be
expected to be safe. If FDA believes that this requirement has not been
met, the agency responds to the notification within 75 days from the
date of its receipt. Otherwise, no response is sent. If a new dietary
ingredient notification has been submitted and a history of use or
other evidence of safety exists that establishes a reasonable
expectation of safety, the new dietary ingredient may be lawfully
marketed in dietary supplements 75 days after the notification is
submitted.
As previously noted, the plant stanol ester petitioner requested
authorization to make a health claim about plant stanol esters and the
risk of CHD in the labeling of both conventional foods and dietary
supplements. Because the standards under which the safety and legality
of conventional foods and dietary supplements are evaluated differ, the
agency is discussing these two proposed uses separately.
i. Conventional foods. The plant stanol ester petitioner asserts
that plant stanol esters are GRAS. In a submission dated February 18,
1999, the petitioner informed FDA of its conclusion that plant stanol
esters are GRAS for use as a nutrient in spreads at a level of 1.7g of
plant stanol esters per serving of spread. The February 18, 1999,
submission included the supporting data on which this conclusion was
based. FDA responded to this submission in a letter dated May 17, 1999
(Ref. 46). In its response, the agency stated, ``Based on its
evaluation, the agency has no questions at this time regarding McNeil's
conclusion that plant stanol esters are GRAS under the intended
conditions of use. Furthermore, FDA is not aware of any scientific
evidence that plant stanol esters would be harmful. The agency has not,
however, made its own determination regarding the GRAS status of the
subject use of plant stanol esters'' (Ref. 46). The petitioner's GRAS
determination applies to plant stanol esters whose stanol components
are prepared by the hydrogenation of commercially available plant
sterol blends, which are obtained as distillates from vegetable oils or
as byproducts of the kraft paper pulping process (Ref. 46). In letters
dated July 21, 1999, and October 13, 1999, the petitioner informed FDA
of additional uses of plant stanol esters in dressings for salad and
snack bars (Refs. 47 and 48).
The agency notes that authorization of a health claim for a
substance should not be interpreted as affirmation that the substance
is GRAS. A review of McNeil's February 18, 1999, submission, however,
reveals significant evidence supporting the safety of the use of plant
stanol esters at the levels necessary to justify a health claim.
Moreover, FDA is not aware of any evidence that provides a basis to
reject the petitioner's position that the use of plant stanol esters in
spreads, dressings for salad, snack bars, and other foods is safe and
lawful. FDA therefore concludes that the petitioner has satisfied the
requirement of Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(ii) to demonstrate that the use of
plant stanol esters in conventional foods at the levels necessary to
justify a claim is safe and lawful.
ii. Dietary supplements. The petitioner submitted a new dietary
ingredient notification for plant stanol esters on August 19, 1999.\2\
The new dietary ingredient notification contained several papers that
reported the results of studies conducted in humans to test
hypocholesterolemic effects of plant stanol esters as well as a
reference to the plant stanol ester petitioner's GRAS submission of
February 18, 1999, and the agency's response to this submission in a
letter dated May 17, 1999 (Ref. 46). In FDA's judgment, the studies
submitted in the plant stanol esters new dietary ingredient
notification and GRAS submission appeared to provide an adequate basis
that a dietary
[[Page 54690]]
supplement containing plant stanol esters would reasonably be expected
to be safe. Therefore, the agency did not respond to the new dietary
ingredient notification. Because the safety standard in section
413(a)(2) of the act has been met and the new dietary ingredient
notification was submitted more than 75 days ago, plant stanol esters
may now be lawfully marketed as dietary ingredients in dietary
supplements. Therefore, FDA concludes that the petitioner has satisfied
the requirement of Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(ii) to demonstrate that the use of
plant stanol esters in dietary supplements at the levels necessary to
justify a claim is safe and lawful.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\2\ The notification states that McNeil does not believeplant
stanol esters to be a new dietary ingredient requiring submission of
a premarket notification, but that McNeil is voluntarily submitting
the information that would be required as part of such a
notification ``for the purpose of providing the Food and Drug
Administration with advance notice concerning its dietary
ingredient'' (Ref. 49).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
III. Review of Scientific Evidence of the Substance-Disease
Relationship
A. Basis for Evaluating the Relationship Between Plant Sterol/Stanol
Esters and CHD
FDA's review examined the relationship between plant sterol/stanol
esters and CHD by focusing on the effects of dietary intake of this
substance on blood cholesterol levels and on the risk of developing
CHD. In the 1991 lipids-CVD and dietary fiber-CVD health claim
proposals, the agency set forth the scientific basis for the
relationship between dietary substances and CVD (56 FR 60727 at 60728
and 56 FR 60582 at 60583). In those documents, the agency stated that
there are many risk factors that contribute to the development of CVD,
and specifically CHD, one of the most serious forms of CVD and among
the leading causes of death and disability. The agency also stated that
there is general agreement that elevated blood cholesterol levels are
one of the major modifiable risk factors in the development of CVD and,
more specifically, CHD.
Several Federal agencies and scientific bodies that have reviewed
the matter have concluded that there is substantial epidemiologic
evidence that high blood levels of total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol are a cause of atherosclerosis and represent major
contributors to CHD (56 FR 60727 at 60728, 56 FR 60582 at 60583, Refs.
18 through 20). Factors that decrease total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol will also tend to decrease the risk of CHD. High-intakes of
saturated fat and, to a lesser degree, of dietary cholesterol are
associated with elevated blood total and LDL cholesterol levels (56 FR
60727 at 60728). Thus, it is generally accepted that blood total
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels can influence the risk of
developing CHD, and, therefore, that dietary factors affecting these
blood cholesterol levels affect the risk of CHD (Refs. 18 through 20).
When considering the effect that the diet or components of the diet
have on blood (or serum) lipids, it is important to consider the effect
that these factors may have on blood levels of high density lipoprotein
(HDL) cholesterol. HDL cholesterol appears to have a protective effect
against CHD because it is involved in the regulation of cholesterol
transport out of cells and to the liver, from which it is ultimately
excreted (Refs. 18 and 50).
For these reasons, the agency based its evaluation of the
relationship between consumption of plant sterol/stanol esters and the
risk of CHD primarily on changes in blood total and LDL cholesterol
resulting from dietary intervention with plant sterol/stanol ester-
containing products. A secondary consideration was that beneficial
changes in total and LDL cholesterol should not be accompanied by
potentially adverse changes in HDL cholesterol. This focus is
consistent with that used by the agency in deciding on the dietary
saturated fat and cholesterol and CHD health claim, Sec. 101.75 (56 FR
60727 and 58 FR 2739); the fiber-containing fruits, vegetables, and
grain products and CHD claim, Sec. 101.77 (56 FR 60582 and 58 FR 2552);
the soluble fiber from certain foods and CHD claim, Sec. 101.81 (61 FR
296, 62 FR 3584, 62 FR 28234, and 63 FR 8119) and the soy protein and
CHD claim, Sec. 101.82 (63 FR 62977 and 64 FR 57700).
B. Review of Scientific Evidence
1. Evidence Considered in Reaching the Decision
a. Plant sterol esters and CHD. The plant sterol esters petitioner
submitted 15 scientific studies (Refs. 51 through 60, 61 and 62 (1
study), 63 and 64 (1 study), and 65 through 67) evaluating the
relationship between plant sterol esters or plant sterols and blood
cholesterol levels in humans. The studies submitted were conducted
between 1953 and 2000. The petition included tables that summarized the
outcome of each of the studies and a summary of the evidence.
The plant sterol ester petitioner states that since plant sterol
esters are hydrolyzed to free sterols and fatty acids in the
gastrointestinal tract (see Refs. 68 through 70), and free sterols are
the active moiety of plant sterol esters (see Refs. 69 and 71), the
literature on free plant sterols has a direct bearing on this petition
(Ref. 1, page 14). The agency agrees that the active moiety of the
plant sterol ester is the plant sterol and has concluded that studies
of the effectiveness of free plant sterols in blood cholesterol
reduction are relevant to the evaluation of the evidence in the plant
sterol esters petition. Accordingly, FDA included such studies in its
evaluation of the relationship between plant sterol esters and reduced
risk of CHD if they met the study selection criteria specified in
section III.B.2 of this document.
In several previous diet and CHD health claim rulemakings, the
agency began its review of scientific evidence in support of the health
claim by considering those studies that were published since 1988, the
date of publication of the ``Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and
Health'' (Ref. 18), which is the most recent and comprehensive Federal
review of the scientific evidence on dietary factors and CHD. That
approach was not possible in this instance, however, as the ``Surgeon
General's Report on Nutrition and Health'' does not discuss the effects
of dietary plant sterols or plant sterol esters on blood cholesterol or
CHD. A discussion of the role of dietary sterols in CHD does appear in
another roughly contemporaneous source, the National Academy Press
publication ``Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic
Disease Risk'' (Ref. 19), which was issued in 1989. That publication
states:
Long ago, plant sterols (beta-sitosterol and related compounds)
were found to prevent absorption of dietary cholesterol (Best et al.,
1955; Farquhar and Sokolow, 1958; Farquhar et al., 1956; Lees et al.,
1977; Peterson et al., 1959), apparently by blocking absorption of
cholesterol in the intestine (Davis, 1955; Grundy and Mok, 1977;
Jandacek et al., 1977; Mattson et al., 1977). More recent reports
indicate that these compounds may be more effective in small doses than
previously believed (Mattson et al., 1982).
This discussion highlights the previous and current emphasis of
research on the topic. Investigations in the 1950's reported the
effects of plant sterols on cholesterol absorption using animal models
and in a few human studies; work in the 1970's examined beta-sitosterol
in the form of a drug product to lower cholesterol in humans. In fact,
beta-sitosterol is approved for use as a drug to lower cholesterol
(Refs. 72 and 73). More recent research has focused on smaller amounts
of plant sterols that are solubilized as fatty acid esters of plant
sterols in food products. The agency considers the older research to be
of little relevance to the petitioned health claim because it concerned
forms and amounts of the substance different from those that are the
subject of the
[[Page 54691]]
petition. Therefore, FDA included in its review only those studies
published from 1982 (the date the National Academy Press publication
refers to for the more recent research reports (Ref. 19)) to the
present among those submitted by the petitioner (Refs. 51, 52, 57, 58,
61 and 62 (1 study), 63 and 64 (1 study), 65, and 67). In addition to
eight studies submitted by the petitioner, FDA also considered two
other studies (Refs. 74 and 75) concerning the effects of plant sterol
esters on blood cholesterol. These two studies were identified by a
literature search (Ref. 76) performed to verify that the totality of
publicly available scientific evidence had been submitted to the
agency.
In addition to the human studies previously discussed, the plant
sterol esters petition also presented some findings from studies that
employed animal models. Human studies are weighted most heavily in the
evaluation of evidence on a diet and disease relationship; animal model
studies can be considered as supporting evidence but cannot serve as
the sole basis for establishing that a diet and disease relationship
exists. Because there were enough well-controlled studies in humans to
evaluate the relationship between plant sterol esters and CHD, FDA did
not closely review the studies in animals.
b. Plant stanol esters and CHD. The plant stanol ester petitioner
submitted 21 scientific studies (Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study), and 67, 77
through 80, 81 and 82 (1 study), and 83 through 96) evaluating the
relationship between plant stanol esters or plant stanols and blood
cholesterol levels in humans. The studies submitted were conducted
between 1993 and 2000. The petition included tables that summarized the
outcome of each of the studies and a summary of the evidence.
Stanol esters are hydrolyzed in the gastrointestinal tract to fatty
acids and free stanols, and investigators believe there is
physiological equivalence of free stanols and stanol esters in
affecting blood cholesterol concentrations. Accordingly, the agency
concludes that studies of the effectiveness of free plant stanols in
blood cholesterol reduction are relevant to the evaluation of the
relationship between plant stanol esters and reduced risk of CHD when
such studies meet the study selection criteria specified in section
III.B.2 of this document.
In several previous diet and CHD health claim rulemakings, the
agency began its review of scientific evidence in support of the health
claim by considering those studies that were published since 1988, the
date of publication of the ``Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and
Health'' (Ref. 18), which is the most recent and comprehensive Federal
review of the scientific evidence on dietary factors and CHD. The
``Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and Health,'' however, did not
discuss the effects of dietary plant stanol esters on blood cholesterol
or CHD. Although a discussion of the role of dietary sterols in CHD
appears in the 1989 National Academy Press publication ``Diet and
Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk,'' there is no
mention of plant stanol esters in this publication (Ref. 19). In fact,
research on the cholesterol-lowering capacity of plant stanol esters
has been a recent development. The agency used 1992 as a starting point
for its scientific evaluation, because this is the year that the
earliest study evaluating the effects of plant stanol esters on blood
cholesterol was published. The agency included in its review 24 studies
published from 1992 to present that were submitted by the petitioner or
otherwise identified (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 74, 77 through
80, 81 and 82 (1 study), and 83 through 97). Of these, 21 studies
(Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 77 through 80, 81 and 82 (1 study), and
83 through 96) were submitted by the petitioner. Two studies (Refs. 74
and 97) were identified by a literature search (Ref. 76) performed to
verify that the totality of publicly available scientific evidence had
been submitted to the agency. In addition, one recently published study
that was submitted in the plant sterol esters petition included
administration of plant stanol esters (Ref. 58). This study was
included in the plant stanol ester review.
In addition to the published studies previously discussed, the
plant stanol ester petitioner submitted a summary of 10 unpublished
studies (Ref. 8, pages 59 through 69). The unpublished studies did not
weigh heavily in the agency's review because health claims are
authorized based on the totality of publicly available scientific
evidence (see section 403(r)(3)(B)(i) of the act and Sec. 101.14(c))
and because the summaries of these studies lacked sufficient detail on
study design and methodologies.
2. Criteria for Selection of Human Studies on Plant Sterol/Stanol
Esters and CHD
The criteria that the agency used to select the most pertinent
studies in both health claim petitions were consistent with those that
the agency used in evaluating the relationship between other substances
and CHD. These criteria were that the studies: (1) Present data and
adequate descriptions of the study design and methods; (2) be available
in English; (3) include estimates of, or enough information to
estimate, intakes of plant sterols or stanols and their esters; (4)
include direct measurement of blood total cholesterol and other blood
lipids related to CHD; and (5) be conducted in persons who represent
the general U.S. population. In the case of criterion (5), these
persons can be considered to be adults with blood total cholesterol
levels less than 300 mg/dL, as explained below.
In a previous rulemaking (62 FR 28234 at 28238 and 63 FR 8103 at
8107), the agency concluded that hypercholesterolemic study populations
were relevant to the general population because, based on data from the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) III, the
prevalence of individuals with elevated blood cholesterol (i.e., 200
mg/dL or greater) is high, i.e., approximately 51 percent of adults
(Ref. 21). The proportion of adults having moderately elevated blood
cholesterol levels (i.e., between 200 and 239 mg/dL) was estimated to
be approximately 31 percent, and the proportion of adults with high
blood cholesterol levels (240 mg/dL or greater) was estimated to be
approximately 20 percent (Ref. 21). It is also estimated that 52
million Americans 20 years of age and older would be candidates for
dietary intervention to lower blood cholesterol (Ref. 21). As the
leading cause of death in this country, CHD is a disease for which the
general U.S. population is at risk. Since more than half of American
adults have mildly to moderately elevated blood cholesterol levels, FDA
considers studies in these populations to be representative of a large
segment of the general population. Accordingly, in this rule, the
agency has reviewed and considered the evidence of effects of plant
sterol/stanol esters on blood cholesterol in mildly and moderately
hypercholesterolemic subjects as well as subjects with cholesterol
levels in the normal range.
In selecting human studies for review, the agency excluded studies
that were published in abstract form because they lacked sufficient
detail on study design and methodologies, and because they lacked
necessary primary data. Studies using special population groups, such
as adults with very high serum cholesterol (mean greater than 300 mg/
dL), children with hypercholesterolemia, and persons who had already
experienced a myocardial infarction (heart attack) or
[[Page 54692]]
who had a diagnosis of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus, were
also excluded because of questions about their relevance to the general
U.S. population.
3. Criteria for Evaluating the Relationship Between Plant Sterol/Stanol
Esters and CHD
The evaluation of study design, protocol, measurement, and
statistical issues for individual studies serves as the starting point
from which FDA determines the overall strengths and weaknesses of the
data and assesses the weight of the evidence. FDA's ``Guidance for
Industry: Significant Scientific Agreement in the Review of Health
Claims for Conventional Foods and Dietary Supplements'' articulates the
agency's approach to evaluating studies supporting diet/disease
relationships (Ref. 98). The criteria that the agency used in
evaluating the studies for this rulemaking include: (1) Adequacy and
clarity of the design (e.g., was the methodology used in the study
clearly described and appropriate for answering the questions posed by
the study?); (2) population studied (e.g., was the sample size large
enough to provide sufficient statistical power to detect a significant
effect?); (3) assessment of intervention or exposure and outcomes
(e.g., was the dietary intervention or exposure well defined and
appropriately measured?); and (4) statistical methods (e.g., were
appropriate statistical analyses applied to the data?).
The general study design characteristics for which the agency
looked included selection criteria for subjects, appropriateness of
controls, randomization of subjects, blinding, statistical power of the
studies, presence of recall bias and interviewer bias, attrition rates
(including reasons for attrition), potential for misclassification of
individuals with regard to dietary intakes, recognition and control of
confounding factors (for example, monitoring body weight and control of
weight loss), and appropriateness of statistical tests and comparisons.
The agency considered whether the intervention studies that it
evaluated had been of long enough duration, greater than or equal to 3
weeks duration, to ensure reasonable stabilization of blood lipids.
As discussed above, dietary saturated fat and cholesterol affect
blood cholesterol levels (Refs. 19 and 20). Previous reviews by FDA and
other scientific bodies have generally concluded that, in persons with
relatively higher baseline levels of blood cholesterol, responses to
dietary intervention tend to be of a larger magnitude than is seen in
persons with more normal blood cholesterol levels (56 FR 60582 at 60587
and Refs. 19 and 20). To take into account these factors, FDA
separately evaluated studies on mildly to moderately
hypercholesterolemic individuals (persons with elevated blood total
cholesterol levels of 200 to 300 mg/dL) and studies on
normocholesterolemic individuals (persons with blood total cholesterol
levels in the normal range ( 200 mg/dL)). FDA also separately evaluated
studies in which the effects of plant sterol/stanol esters were
evaluated as part of a ``typical'' American diet (approximately 37
percent of calories from fat, 13 percent of calories from saturated
fat, and more than 300 mg of cholesterol daily) and studies in which
the test protocols incorporated a dietary regimen that limits fat
intake such as the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's National
Cholesterol Education Program Step I Diet (intake of 8 to 10 percent of
total calories from saturated fat, 30 percent or less of calories from
total fat, and cholesterol less than 300 mg/d) (Ref. 99).
C. Review of Human Studies
1. Studies Evaluating the Effects of Plant Sterol Esters on Blood
Cholesterol
As discussed in section III. B.1.a of this document, FDA reviewed
10 human clinical studies on plant sterol esters or other plant sterols
(Refs. 51, 52, 57, 58, 61 and 62 (1 study), 63 and 64 (1 study), 65,
67, and 74 and 75). Of these, nine met the selection criteria listed in
section III.B.2 of this document (Refs. 51, 57, 58, 61 and 62 (1
study), 63 and 64 (1 study), 65, 67 and 74 and 75). These studies are
summarized in table 1 at the end of this document and discussed below.
The remaining study (Ref. 52) failed to meet the inclusion criteria
because the population studied (children with familial
hypercholesterolemia) was not representative of the general U.S.
population. As supporting evidence, the results of one research
synthesis study (Ref. 100) that included a number of the plant sterol
ester studies submitted in the petition are discussed in section
III.C.1.d of this document.
Studies typically report the amount of free plant sterol consumed
rather than the amount of plant sterol ester administered. Where
possible, we report both the amount of plant sterol ester and the
equivalent free sterol.
(a) Hypercholesterolemics (serum cholesterol 300 mg/dL): low
saturated fat and cholesterol diets. One study was submitted as a draft
in the plant sterol esters petition because it has been submitted for
publication, but has not yet been published other than in abstract form
(Ref. 62). FDA reviewed this study but considers the results
preliminary until a full report of the study has been published. The
preliminary results in this study (Refs. 61 and 62 (1 study)) showed a
cholesterol-reducing effect of plant sterol esters in
hypercholesterolemic subjects who consumed soybean oil sterol esters as
part of a low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet. In this study,
224 men and women with mild-to-moderate hypercholesterolemia instructed
to follow a National Cholesterol Education Program Step I diet were
randomly assigned to one of three groups: (1) control reduced-fat
spread, (2) reduced-fat spread containing 1.76 g/d of plant sterol
esters (1.1 g/d free plant sterols) (low intake group), or (3) reduced-
fat spread containing 3.52 g/d of plant sterol esters (2.2 g/d free
plant sterols) (high-intake test group). All subjects consumed 14 g/d
of spread in two 7 g servings/day, with food. Subjects in the low- and
high-intake groups who consumed ``80 percent of scheduled servings had
decreases in serum total cholesterol of 5.2 and 6.6 percent, and LDL
cholesterol of 7.6 and 8.1 percent, respectively, versus control
(p0.001). The difference between the two test groups with regard to
serum total and LDL cholesterol levels was not statistically
significant. HDL cholesterol responses did not differ among the groups.
These preliminary results indicate that a plant sterol ester-containing
reduced-fat spread, in a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, can
reduce cholesterol.
(b) Hypercholesterolemics (serum cholesterol 300 mg/dL):
``typical'' or ``usual'' diets. Four studies (Refs. 57, 58, 67, and 74)
show a relationship between consumption of plant sterols and reduced
blood cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic subjects consuming diets
within the range of a typical American diet. A fifth study (Refs. 63
and 64 (1 study)) shows inconclusive results.
Jones et al. (Ref. 58) conducted a controlled feeding crossover
study in which diets were based on a fixed-food North American diet
formulated to meet Canadian recommended nutrient intakes. This study
reported significantly lower plasma total cholesterol (9.1 percent, p
0.005) and LDL cholesterol (13.2 percent, p 0.02) in male subjects
consuming 2.94 g/d vegetable oil sterol esters (1.84 g/d free plant
sterols delivered in 23 g of margarine each day; daily margarine doses
were divided into three equal
[[Page 54693]]
portions and added to each meal) for 21 days compared to 21 days on
control margarine. Plasma HDL cholesterol did not differ across groups
and there was no significant weight change shown by the subjects while
consuming any of the margarine mixtures.
Hendriks et al. (Ref. 57) reported the effects of feeding three
different levels of vegetable oil sterol esters (1.33, 2.58, and 5.18
g/d corresponding to 0.83, 1.61, and 3.24 g/d free plant sterols,
respectively) incorporated in spreads (25 g/d of spread replaced an
equivalent amount of the spread(s) habitually used; one-half was
consumed at lunch, one-half at dinner) in apparently healthy
normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects using a
randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled balanced incomplete Latin
square design with five treatments and four periods. The vegetable oil
sterols were esterified to sunflower oil and the degree of
esterification was 82 percent. Blood total and LDL cholesterol levels
were reduced compared to the control spread (p 0.001) after 3.5 weeks.
Blood total cholesterol decreased by 4.9, 5.9, and 6.8 percent for
daily consumption of 1.33, 2.58, and 5.18 g/d plant sterol esters,
respectively. For LDL cholesterol these decreases were 6.7, 8.5, and
9.9 percent. No significant differences in cholesterol-lowering effect
between the three levels of plant sterol esters could be detected.
There were no effects on HDL cholesterol. The subjects' body weight
differed after daily consumption of 2.58 and 5.18 g plant sterol esters
by 0.3 kilogram (kg) (p 0.01), but this small difference in body
weight probably did not affect the study findings.
Another study by Jones et al. (Ref. 74) investigated the effects of
a mixture of plant sterols and plant stanols. The plant stanol compound
sitostanol made up about 20 percent of the mixture by weight. The
remaining sterol component of the mixture was composed mostly of the
plant sterols sitosterol and campesterol from tall oil (derived from
pine wood). The investigators evaluated the cholesterol-lowering
properties of this nonesterified plant sterol/stanol mixture in a
controlled feeding regimen based on a ``prudent,'' fixed-food North
American diet formulated to meet Canadian recommended nutrient intakes.
Thirty-two hypercholesterolemic men were fed either a diet of prepared
foods alone or the same diet plus 1.7 g per d of the plant sterol/
stanol mixture (in 30 g/d of margarine, consumed during 3 meals) for 30
days in a parallel study design. The plant sterol/stanol mixture had no
statistically significant effect on plasma total cholesterol
concentrations. However, LDL cholesterol concentrations on day 30 had
decreased by 8.9 percent (p 0.01) and 24.4 percent (p 0.001) with the
control and plant sterol/stanol-enriched diets, respectively. On day
30, LDL cholesterol concentrations were significantly lower (p 0.05)
by 15.5 percent in the group consuming the plant sterol/stanol mixture
compared to the control group. HDL cholesterol concentrations did not
change significantly during the study.
Weststrate and Meijer (Ref. 67) evaluated the effects of different
plant sterols on plasma total and LDL cholesterol in
normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects consuming
their usual diets with the addition of a test or placebo margarine. A
randomized double-blind placebo-controlled balanced incomplete Latin
square design with five treatments and four periods of 3.5 weeks was
utilized to compare the effect of margarines (30 g/d) with added sterol
esters from soybean oil (4.8 g/d; 3 g/d free plant sterol), sheanut oil
(2.9 g/d) or ricebran oil (1.6 g/d) or with plant stanol esters (4.6 g/
d; 2.7 g/d free plant stanols) to a placebo margarine. The sterol
esters from soybean oil were mainly esters from sitosterol,
campesterol, and stigmasterol. Plasma total and LDL cholesterol
concentrations were significantly reduced, by 8.3 and 13.0 percent (p
0.05), respectively, compared to control, in the soybean oil sterol
ester margarine group. Similar reductions were reported in the plant
stanol ester margarine group (see discussion of this study in section
III. C.2.b of this document). Sterols from sheanut oil and rice bran
oil did not have a significant effect on cholesterol levels. No effects
on HDL cholesterol concentrations were reported in either the control
or any of the test groups. The cholesterol-lowering effects of
ingestion of plant sterol/stanol esters on blood cholesterol did not
differ between normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholesterolemic
subjects. The authors concluded that both the margarine with plant
stanol esters and the margarine with sterol esters from soybean oil
were effective in lowering blood total and LDL cholesterol levels
without affecting HDL cholesterol concentrations. The authors further
suggested that incorporating such substances in edible fat-containing
products may substantially reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in
the population.
Two reports of apparently the same study (Refs. 63 and 64) gave
inconclusive results regarding the relationship between plant sterol
consumption and blood cholesterol levels. Interpretation of this study
is complicated by design issues such as concerns about sample size and
level of plant sterol administered, but both reports are discussed here
and summarized in table 1 of this document because they provide
information to assist in determining the minimum level of plant sterol
esters necessary to provide a health benefit.
Miettinen and Vanhanen (Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study)) reported the
effect of small amounts of sitosterol (700 mg/d free sterols) and
sitostanol (700 mg/d free stanols) dissolved in 50 g rapeseed oil (RSO)
mayonnaise on serum cholesterol in 31 subjects with
hypercholesterolemia for 9 weeks. Subjects did not change their diets
except for replacing 50 g/d of dietary fat with the 50 g/d of RSO
mayonnaise. It appears that these authors later conducted another 9-
week phase of the study using sitostanol esters (1.36 g/d plant stanol
esters or 800 mg/d free stanols) dissolved in 50 g RSO mayonnaise. The
results of this later phase were reported in the Miettinen reference
(Ref. 63), together with the earlier results. The Vanhanen reference
(Ref. 64) reports only the earlier results for sitosterol and
sitostanol. The Vanhanen reference (Ref. 64) reports reduced serum
total cholesterol concentrations (8.5 percent) during the RSO
mayonnaise run-in period (stabilization period before the intervention
begins) compared to values before the run-in period when combining all
subjects. Continuation of RSO mayonnaise in the RSO mayonnaise control
group (n=8) during the experimental period had no further effect on
blood cholesterol (Refs. 63 and 64). (``N'' refers to the number of
subjects.) Neither sitosterol (n=9) nor sitostanol (n=7) significantly
altered serum total cholesterol or LDL cholesterol concentrations
compared to the RSO control group (n=8) during the experimental period
(Refs. 63 and 64). Sitostanol ester (n=7), however, significantly
reduced serum total and LDL cholesterol levels compared to the RSO
control group (Ref. 63). Furthermore, serum total cholesterol was
significantly reduced by 4 percent (p 0.05) during the experimental
period in an analysis, which compared the combined plant sterol/stanol
groups (sitostanol, sitosterol, and sitostanol ester groups; n=23) to
the RSO control group (n=8) (Ref. 63). HDL cholesterol did not change
in the plant sterol group compared to the RSO control group (Ref. 63).
The agency notes that it is difficult to decipher from the
descriptions in these
[[Page 54694]]
reports the amount of plant sterol that was consumed and the level of
cholesterol-lowering that was observed. For the sitosterol group, as an
example, the method section states that 722 mg/d of sitosterol was
added to the RSO mayonnaise, yet the abstract mentions that the RSO
mayonnaise contained an additional 625 mg/d of sitosterol (Ref. 64).
The results section of the Miettinen reference (Ref. 63) notes that in
the combined plant sterol/stanol groups, total and LDL cholesterol
levels were slightly but significantly decreased up to 4 percent, yet
the abstract states that serum total cholesterol was reduced by about 5
percent in the combined plant sterol/stanol groups. Therefore, FDA
considers the results in these reports inconclusive because of
inconsistencies in the descriptions of methods and results.
(c) Normocholesterolemics: ``typical'' or ``usual'' diets. The
results of three studies (Refs. 51, 65, and 75) support a cholesterol-
lowering effect of plant sterols in subjects with normal cholesterol
values.
Ayesh et al. (Ref. 51), in a controlled feeding study, reported
significantly lower serum total cholesterol (18 percent, p 0.0001) and
LDL cholesterol (23 percent, p 0.0001) in subjects consuming 13.8 g/d
vegetable oil sterol esters (8.6 g/d free plant sterols delivered in 40
g of margarine each day consumed with breakfast and dinner under
supervision) for 21 days in males and 28 days in females, compared to
subjects consuming a control margarine. These results were calculated
as the difference from baseline to days 21 for male and 28 for female;
analysis of covariance was adjusted for gender. There was no
significant difference in effect on HDL cholesterol between control and
plant sterol groups.
In a double-blind crossover study, Sierksma et al. (Ref. 75) showed
that daily consumption of 25 g of a spread enriched with free soybean
oil sterols (0.8 g/d) for 3 weeks lowered plasma total and LDL
cholesterol concentrations respectively by 3.8 percent (p 0.05) and 6
percent (p 0.05) compared with a placebo spread. No effect on plasma
HDL cholesterol was found. Subjects followed their usual diets, except
that they replaced their usual spread with the test or placebo spread.
The investigators also tested sheanut-oil sterols (3.3 g/d) in 25 g of
spread and found that the sheanut-oil spread did not lower plasma total
and LDL cholesterol levels. The sheanut-oil sterols were primarily
phenolic acid esters of 4,4-dimethyl sterols, whereas the soybean-oil
product contained 4-desmethyl sterols (the class of sterols containing
no methyl group at the carbon 4 atom). The structure of 4-desmethyl
sterols is more similar to cholesterol than the structure of 4,4-
dimethyl sterols. The investigators stated that soybean-oil sterol
structural similarity to cholesterol may offer increased competition
with cholesterol for incorporation in mixed micelles, the most likely
mechanism for the blood cholesterol-lowering action of plant sterols.
Pelletier et al. (Ref. 65) reported reductions in blood total
cholesterol (10 percent, p 0.001) and LDL cholesterol (15 percent, p
0.001), compared to a control period, in subjects consuming 740 mg/d of
soybean oil sterols (nonesterified) in 50 g/d of butter for 4 weeks.
These results were obtained in a crossover experiment in 12
normocholesterolemic men consuming a controlled, but ``normal'' diet.
The total fat intake as a percent of energy was 36.4 percent during
both the control and the plant sterol-feeding period. The cholesterol
intake during the control period was 436 mg/d; it was 410 mg/d during
the plant sterol-feeding period. The diets were designed to have a
plant sterol to cholesterol ratio of 2.0, which has repeatedly been
shown to affect cholesterol levels in various animal models. There was
no significant difference in effect on HDL cholesterol between control
and plant sterol groups.
(d) Other studies: research synthesis study. FDA considered the
results of a March 25, 2000, research synthesis study by Law (Ref. 100)
of the effect of plant sterols and stanols on serum cholesterol
concentrations. While evaluation of research synthesis studies,
including meta-analyses, is of interest, the appropriateness of such
analytical techniques in establishing substance/disease relationships
has not been determined. There are ongoing efforts to identify criteria
and critical factors to consider in both conducting and using such
analyses, but standardization of this methodology is still emerging.
Therefore, this research synthesis study was considered as supporting
evidence but did not weigh heavily within the body of evidence on the
relationship between plant sterol/stanol esters and CHD.
Law performed a research synthesis analysis of the effect of plant
sterols and stanols on serum cholesterol concentrations by pooling data
from randomized trials identified by a Medline search using the term
``plant sterols.'' Law obtained additional data for analysis from other
studies cited in papers and review articles. A total of 14 studies that
employed either a parallel or crossover design were incorporated in the
analysis, consisting of 20 dose comparisons of either plant sterols or
plant stanols to a control vehicle. The data described the effects on
serum LDL cholesterol concentrations obtained from using spreads (or in
some cases, mayonnaise, olive oil, or butter) with and without added
plant sterols or stanols. Studies that included children with familial
hypercholesterolemia were excluded from the research synthesis
analysis. Law included in the research synthesis analysis study
populations with severe hypercholesterolemia (mean serum total
cholesterol greater than 300 mg/dL) and study populations with previous
myocardial infarction or noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus, as
well as study populations with mildly and moderately
hypercholesterolemic and/or normal cholesterol concentrations.
Based on the placebo-adjusted reduction in serum LDL cholesterol,
the analysis indicated that 2 g of plant sterol (equivalent to 3.2 g/d
of plant sterol esters) or plant stanol (equivalent to 3.4 g/d of plant
stanol esters) added to a daily intake of spread (or mayonnaise, olive
oil, or butter) reduces serum concentrations of LDL cholesterol by an
average of 20.9 mg/dL (0.54 millimole per liter (mmol/l)) in people
aged 50 to 59 (p=0.005), 16.6 mg/dL (0.43 mmol/l) in those aged 40 to
49 (p=0.005), and 12.8 mg/dL (0.33 mmol/l) in those aged 30 to 39
(p=0.005). The results indicated that the reduction in the
concentration of LDL cholesterol at each dose is significantly greater
in older people versus younger people. The reductions in blood total
cholesterol concentrations were similar to the LDL cholesterol
reductions and there was little change in serum concentrations of HDL
cholesterol. The results of this analysis also suggested that doses
greater than about 2 g of plant sterol (3.2 g/d of plant sterol esters)
or stanol (3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters) per day would not result in
further reduction in LDL cholesterol (Ref. 100).
Observational studies and randomized trials concerning the
relationship between serum cholesterol and the risk of heart disease
(Ref. 101) indicate that for people aged 50 to 59, a reduction in LDL
cholesterol of about 19.4 mg/dL (0.5 mmol/l) translates into a 25
percent reduction in the risk of heart disease after about 2 years.
Studies administering plant sterols and stanols have demonstrated the
potential to provide this protection. According to Law, the
cholesterol-lowering capacity of plant sterols and stanols is even
larger than the effect that could be expected to occur if people ate
less animal fat (or saturated fat) (Ref. 100).
[[Page 54695]]
(e) Summary. In one preliminary report of hypercholesterolemic
subjects consuming a low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet (Refs.
61 and 62 (1 study)), plant sterol ester intake was associated with
statistically significant decreases in serum total and LDL cholesterol
levels. Levels of HDL cholesterol did not change during plant sterol
consumption compared to controls. Levels of plant sterol ester found to
be effective in lowering serum total and LDL cholesterol levels, in the
context of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, were reported
to be 1.76 and 3.52 g/d (1.1 and 2.2 g/d of free plant sterol) (Refs.
61 and 62 (1 study)).
In four (Refs. 57, 58, 67, and 74) of five (Refs. 57, 58, 67, 74,
and 63 and 64 (1 study)) studies of hypercholesterolemic subjects
consuming ``usual'' diets that were generally high in total fat,
saturated fat and cholesterol, plant sterol intake was associated with
statistically significant decreases in blood total and/or LDL
cholesterol levels. Levels of HDL cholesterol were found to be
unchanged by consumption of diets containing plant sterol (Refs. 57,
58, 67, 74, and 63 and 64 (1 study)). Levels of plant sterol ester
found to be effective in lowering blood total and/or LDL cholesterol
levels, in the context of a usual diet, ranged in these studies from
1.33 (Ref. 57) to 5.18 g/d (Ref. 57) (equivalent to 0.83 to 3.24 g/d of
free plant sterol).
The results of one study in hypercholesterolemic subjects consuming
``usual'' diets (Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study)) are inconclusive; this may
be due to lack of statistical power (e.g., sample size too small to
detect the hypothesized difference between groups) or too low a dose of
plant sterols to provide an effect. As previously discussed, the
descriptions of methods and results also were inconsistent and
difficult to interpret. These investigators report no effect of 700 mg/
d of plant sterol (equivalent to 1.12 g/d of plant sterol esters) on
blood cholesterol levels. However, when the results of three test
groups (700 mg/d plant sterol, 700 mg/d plant stanol, 1.36 mg/d plant
stanol ester) were pooled and compared to a control group, a
statistically significant effect on reducing serum total cholesterol
emerged, perhaps because the increased number of subjects in this
pooled analysis artificially increased the ability to detect a
difference.
In three of three studies (Refs. 51, 65, and 75) of healthy adults
with normal blood cholesterol levels consuming a ``usual'' diet, plant
sterol intake was associated with statistically significant decreases
in both blood total and LDL cholesterol levels. HDL cholesterol levels
were not significantly affected by plant sterol intake. Levels of plant
sterol found to be effective in lowering blood total and LDL
cholesterol ranged in these studies from 0.74 (Ref. 65) to 8.6 g/d
(equivalent to 1.2 to 13.8 g/d of plant sterol esters) (Ref. 51).
Based on these studies, FDA finds there is scientific evidence for
a consistent, clinically significant effect of plant sterol esters on
blood total and LDL cholesterol. The cholesterol-lowering effect of
plant sterol esters is consistent in both mildly and moderately
hypercholesterolemic populations and in populations with normal
cholesterol concentrations. The cholesterol-lowering effect of plant
sterol esters has been reported in addition to the effects of a low
saturated fat and low cholesterol diet. It has been consistently
reported that plant sterols do not affect HDL cholesterol levels. These
conclusions are drawn from the review of the well controlled clinical
studies and are supported by the research synthesis study of Law (Ref.
100).
2. Studies Evaluating the Effects of Plant Stanol Esters on Blood
Cholesterol
As discussed in section III.B.1.b of this document, FDA reviewed 24
studies (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 74, 77 through 80, 81 and
82 (1 study), and 83 through 97) on plant stanols, including both free
and esterified forms. Of these, 15 met the selection criteria listed in
section III.B.2. of this document (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 67,
74, 77, 78, 80, 81 and 82 (1 study), 88 through 92, 94, and 97). These
studies are summarized in table 2 at the end of this document and
discussed below. The nine remaining studies (Refs. 79, 83 through 87,
93, 95, and 96) failed to meet the selection criteria because of
insufficient information to evaluate the design and method of the study
or because the populations studied were not considered representative
of the general U.S. adult population. For example, some of the studies
were performed in children with type II or familial
hypercholesterolemia; others used adult subjects with mean serum total
cholesterol levels > 300 mg/dL or subjects with preexisting disease
(e.g., diabetes). As supporting evidence, the results of a community
intervention study (Ref. 102) and a research synthesis study (Ref. 100)
that included a number of the plant stanol ester studies submitted in
the petition are discussed in section III.C.2.d of this document.
Studies typically report the amount of free plant stanol consumed,
rather than the levels of stanol esters administered. Where possible,
we report both the amount of plant stanol ester and the equivalent free
stanol.
(a) Hypercholesterolemics (serum cholesterol 300 mg/dL): low
saturated fat and cholesterol diets. Two studies (Refs. 77 and 80)
showed a relationship between consumption of plant stanol esters and
reduced blood cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic subjects who consumed
plant stanol esters as part of a low saturated fat and low cholesterol
diet.
Andersson et al. (Ref. 80) randomized subjects to receive one of
three test diets: Either a low fat margarine containing 3.4 g/d plant
stanol esters (2 g/d of plant stanols) with a controlled, low saturated
fat, low cholesterol diet; a control low fat margarine containing no
plant stanol esters with a controlled, low saturated fat, low
cholesterol diet; or to continue their normal diet with the addition of
the margarine containing 3.4 g/d plant stanol esters (2 g/d of plant
stanols). Serum total and LDL cholesterol were reduced in all three
groups after 8 weeks. The group consuming the margarine containing
plant stanol esters with the low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet
showed 12 percent (p 0.0035) and 15 percent (p 0.0158) reductions in
serum total and LDL cholesterol levels, respectively, compared to the
group that consumed a control low fat margarine with a controlled, low
saturated fat, low cholesterol diet. The serum total and LDL
cholesterol reductions were reported to be 4 percent (p 0.0059) and 6
percent (p 0.0034), respectively, for the group consuming the
margarine containing plant stanol esters with the low saturated fat,
low cholesterol diet compared to the group consuming the margarine
containing plant stanol esters with a normal diet. Although a normal
diet and control margarine group was not included, this study suggests
that 3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters in conjunction with a normal or
controlled, low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet can significantly
lower serum cholesterol levels. There was no change in HDL cholesterol
levels in the normal diet, plant stanol ester margarine group. The
study results suggest that the reduction in serum cholesterol levels is
significantly greater when the plant stanol esters are consumed as part
of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol. HDL cholesterol was
decreased, however, in subjects in both low saturated fat, low
cholesterol diet groups, and this result was statistically significant
in the group that consumed the plant stanol ester margarine in
conjunction with this diet.
[[Page 54696]]
Hallikainen et al. (Ref. 77) randomly assigned 55 mildly
hypercholesterolemic subjects, after a 4-week high fat diet (36 to 38
percent of energy from fat), to one of three low fat margarine groups:
a 3.9 g/d (2.31 g/d of free plant stanols) wood stanol ester-containing
margarine, a 3.9 g/d (2.16 g/d of free plant stanols) vegetable oil
stanol ester-containing margarine, or a control margarine group. The
groups consumed the margarines for 8 weeks as part of a diet resembling
that of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's National
Cholesterol Education Program Step II diet (a diet in which saturated
fat intake is less than 7 percent of calories and cholesterol is less
than 200 mg/d) (Ref. 99). During the experimental period, the serum
total cholesterol reduction was significantly greater in the wood
stanol ester-containing margarine (10.6 percent, p 0.001) and
vegetable oil stanol ester-containing margarine (8.1 percent, p 0.05)
groups than in the control group, but no significant differences were
found between the wood stanol ester-containing margarine and vegetable
oil stanol ester-containing margarine groups. The LDL cholesterol
reduction was significantly greater in the wood stanol ester-containing
margarine (13.7 percent p 0.01) group than in the control group. For
the vegetable oil stanol ester-containing margarine group, the LDL
cholesterol reduction was 8.6 percent greater than in the control, but
the difference was not statistically significant (p= 0.072). However,
there were no significant differences reported between the wood stanol
ester-containing margarine and vegetable oil stanol ester-containing
margarine groups for LDL cholesterol. HDL cholesterol concentrations
did not change during the study. The authors state, ``* * * that plant
stanols can reduce serum cholesterol concentrations, even in
conjunction with a markedly low dietary cholesterol intake, indicates
that plant stanols must inhibit not only the absorption of dietary
cholesterol but also that of biliary cholesterol.''
The results of another study (Ref. 97) did not show a relationship
between consumption of plant stanols and blood cholesterol in
hypercholesterolemic subjects who consumed plant stanols as part of a
low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet. In this study, Denke (Ref.
97) tested the cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary supplementation
with plant stanols (3 g/d suspended in safflower oil and packed into
gelatin capsules) in 33 men with moderate hypercholesterolemia who were
consuming a Step 1 diet. Plant stanol consumption did not significantly
lower plasma total cholesterol or LDL cholesterol compared with the
Step 1 diet alone. HDL cholesterol levels were also unchanged. The
authors state that although previous reports suggested that low dose
plant stanol consumption is an effective means of reducing plasma
cholesterol concentrations, its effectiveness may be attenuated when
the diet is low in cholesterol. The agency notes that, unlike several
of the studies submitted with the petition, this study was not a
randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study, but rather a fixed
sequence design. One result of this design was that during the plant
stanol dietary supplement phase the subjects consumed an additional 12
g of fat that they did not consume in other phases because each dietary
supplement contained 1g of safflower oil and subjects were instructed
to consume 4 capsules per meal (subjects were to consume a total of 12
capsules (3000 mg) in three divided doses during three meals). The
agency does not give as much weight to this study as it does the
studies in which subjects were randomly assigned to placebo or plant
stanol arms of a study with all else being equal among the
participants.
(b) Hypercholesterolemics (serum cholesterol 300 mg/dL):
``typical'' or ``usual'' diets. Eight studies (Refs. 63 and 64 (1
study), 67, 78, 81 and 82 (1 study), 88 through 90, and 94) show a
relationship between consumption of plant stanols and reduced blood
total and LDL cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic subjects consuming
diets within the range of a typical American diet. Two studies (Refs.
58 and 74) show a relationship between consumption of plant stanols and
reduced LDL cholesterol, but not blood total cholesterol, in the same
category of subjects consuming diets within the range of a typical
American diet.
Hallikainen et al. (Ref. 88) conducted a single-blind, crossover
study in which 22 hypercholesterolemic subjects consumed margarine
containing four different doses of plant stanol esters, including 1.4,
2.7, 4.1, and 5.4 g/d (0.8, 1.6, 2.4, and 3.2 g/d of free plant
stanols) for 4 weeks each. These test margarine phases were compared to
a control margarine phase, also 4 weeks long. All subjects followed the
same standardized diet throughout the study, and the order of the
margarine phases was randomized. Serum total cholesterol concentration
decreased (calculated in reference to control) by 2.8 percent for the
1.4 g/d dose (p=0.384), 6.8 percent for the 2.7 g/d dose (p 0.001),
10.3 percent for the 4.1 g/d dose (p0.001) and 11.3 percent (p 0.001)
for the 5.4 g/d dose of plant stanol esters. The respective decreases
for LDL cholesterol were 1.7 percent (p=0.892), 5.6 percent (p 0.05),
9.7 percent (p0.001) and 10.4 percent (p0.001). Although decreases were
numerically greater with 4.1 and 5.4 g doses than with the 2.7 g dose,
these differences were not statistically significant (p=0.054-0.516).
This study demonstrates that at least 2.7 g/d of plant stanol esters
can significantly reduce both serum total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol levels by at least 5.6 percent compared to control. No
statistically significant changes in HDL cholesterol were observed with
any of the plant stanol ester margarines.
Gylling and Miettinen (Ref. 78) reported the serum cholesterol-
lowering effects of feeding different campestanol/sitostanol mixtures
in margarine or butter in 23 postmenopausal women using a double-blind
crossover design. The participants were randomly allocated to study
periods where they consumed 25 g/d of plant stanol-containing rapeseed
oil margarine with either 5.4 g sitostanol ester-rich (3.18 g of free
plant stanols; wood-derived plant stanol esters with a campestanol to
sitostanol ratio 1:11) plant stanol esters or 5.7 g campestanol ester-
rich (3.16 g of free plant stanols; vegetable oil-derived plant stanol
esters with a campestanol to sitostanol ratio 1:2) plant stanol esters.
After 6 weeks, subjects consumed the other margarine for an additional
6 weeks. Following an 8 week home diet wash-out period, 21 of the
subjects were randomly assigned to consume either 25 g of butter or 4.1
g/d plant stanol esters (2.43 g/d of free plant stanols with a
campestanol to sitostanol ratio 1:1) in 25 g of butter for an
additional 5 weeks. Throughout the study, subjects consumed their usual
diets, except that they were instructed to substitute the 25 g/d of
butter or margarine consumed as part of the study for 25 g of their
normal daily fat intake. Both the wood and vegetable stanol ester
margarines lowered serum total cholesterol by 4 and 6 percent,
respectively, compared to baseline (p 0.05 for both). LDL cholesterol
was reduced by 8 and 10 percent with the wood and vegetable stanol
ester margarines, respectively, versus baseline (p 0.05 for both).
Furthermore, HDL cholesterol was increased by 6 and 5 percent (p 0.05)
with the wood and vegetable stanol ester margarines, respectively,
versus baseline, so the LDL/HDL cholesterol ratio was reduced by 15
percent (p
[[Page 54697]]
0.05 for both). The two plant stanol mixtures in margarine appeared
equally effective in reducing serum cholesterol. Butter alone increased
serum total and LDL cholesterol by 4 percent (p 0.05 for total
cholesterol, not statistically significant for LDL cholesterol).
Although the plant stanol ester butter did not significantly reduce
serum total and LDL cholesterol compared to baseline, the plant stanol
ester butter was found to decrease serum total cholesterol by 8 percent
and LDL cholesterol by 12 percent (p 0.05 for both) compared to butter
alone. There was no significant change in HDL cholesterol between the
two butter groups. The study reported that plant stanol esters are able
to decrease serum total and LDL cholesterol in a saturated environment,
i.e., when plant stanol ester is consumed in butter, a high saturated-
fat food, and compared to the effects of butter without plant stanol
esters. The observation that the plant stanol ester butter did not
reduce blood cholesterol levels compared to baseline suggests that
plant stanol esters do not completely counteract the impact of a high
saturated-fat diet on blood cholesterol levels.
Nguyen et al. (Ref. 90) examined the blood cholesterol-lowering
effects in subjects consuming either a European spread containing 5.1
g/d plant stanol esters (3 g/d free plant stanols), a U.S.-reformulated
spread containing 5.1 g/d plant stanol esters (3 g/d free plant
stanols), a U.S.-reformulated spread containing 3.4 g/d plant stanol
esters (2 g/d of free plant stanols), or a U.S.-reformulated spread
without plant stanol esters for 8 weeks. The subjects consumed a total
of 24 g of spread in three 8 g servings a day, but made no other
dietary changes. Serum total cholesterol (p 0.001) and LDL cholesterol
(p 0.02) levels were significantly reduced in all three test groups
compared with the placebo group at all time points during the
ingredient phase. The U.S. spread containing 5.1 g/d plant stanol
esters lowered serum total and LDL cholesterol by 6.4 and 10.1 percent,
respectively, when compared to baseline (p 0.001). Subjects consuming
the 5.1 g/d plant stanol esters European spread achieved a 4.7 percent
reduction in serum total cholesterol and a 5.2 percent reduction in LDL
cholesterol compared to baseline (p 0.001). The 3.4 g/d plant stanol
ester U.S. spread group showed a 4.1 percent reduction in both serum
total and LDL cholesterol levels compared to baseline (p 0.001). HDL
cholesterol levels were unchanged throughout the study.
Weststrate and Meijer (Ref. 67) evaluated the effects of different
plant sterols and stanols on plasma total and LDL cholesterol in
normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects. The
subjects consumed their usual diets with the addition of a test or
placebo margarine. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled
balanced incomplete Latin square design with five treatments and four
periods of 3.5 weeks was utilized to compare the effect of margarines
(30 g/d) with added plant stanol esters (4.6 g/d; 2.7 g/d free plant
stanols), or with added plant sterol esters from sheanut oil (2.9 g/d),
ricebran oil (1.6 g/d), or soybean oil (4.8 g/d; 3 g/d free plant
sterol) to a placebo margarine. Plasma total and LDL cholesterol
concentrations were significantly reduced by 7.3 and 13.0 percent (p
0.05), respectively, compared to control, in the plant stanol ester
margarine group. Similar reductions were reported in the soybean oil
sterol ester margarine group (see discussion of this study in section
III.C.1.b of this document). No effect on HDL cholesterol
concentrations was reported during the study.
In a long term study conducted in Finland (Ref. 89), 153 mildly
hypercholesterolemic subjects were instructed to consume 24 g/d of
canola oil margarine or the same margarine with added plant stanol
esters for a targeted consumption of 5.1 g/d plant stanol esters (3 g/d
free plant stanols), without other dietary changes. At the end of 6
months, those consuming plant stanol esters were randomly assigned
either to continue the test margarine with a targeted intake of 5.1 g/d
plant stanol esters or to switch to a targeted intake of 3.4 g/d plant
stanol esters (2 g/d free plant stanols) for an additional 6 months.
The control group also continued for another 6 months. Based on
measured margarine consumption, average plant stanol ester intakes were
4.4 g/d (in the 5.1 g/d target group) and 3.1 g/d (in the 3.4 g/d
target group). The mean 1 year reduction in serum total cholesterol was
10.2 percent in the 4.4 g/d plant stanol ester group, as compared with
an increase of 0.1 percent in the control group. The difference in the
change in serum total cholesterol concentration between the two groups
was -24 mg/dL (p 0.01). The respective reductions in LDL cholesterol
were 14.1 percent in the 4.4 g/d plant stanol ester group and 1.1
percent in the control group. The differences in the change in LDL
cholesterol concentration between the two groups was -21 mg/dL (p
0.001). Significant reductions in serum total and LDL cholesterol were
also reported after consuming plant stanol esters for 6 months. Unlike
the group consuming 4.4 g/d of plant stanol esters for 12 months, where
continued reductions in serum total and LDL cholesterol were observed
from 6 to 12 months, the reduction in plant stanol ester intake to 3.1
g/d at 6 months was not followed by any further decrease in the serum
total and LDL cholesterol concentrations. Serum HDL cholesterol
concentrations were not affected by plant stanol esters.
Vanhanen et al. (Ref. 94) reported the hypocholesterolemic effects
of 1.36 g/d of plant stanol esters (800 mg/d of free plant stanols) in
RSO mayonnaise for 9 weeks followed by 6 weeks of consumption of 3.4 g/
d of plant stanol esters (2 g/d of free plant stanols) in RSO
mayonnaise compared to a group receiving RSO mayonnaise alone. Subjects
consumed their usual diets, except that they were instructed to
substitute the RSO mayonnaise for 50 g/d of their normal daily fat
intake. After 9 weeks of consumption of the lower dose plant stanol
ester mayonnaise, the changes in serum levels of total and LDL
cholesterol were -4.1 percent (p 0.05) and -10.3 percent (not
statistically significant), respectively, as compared to the control.
Greater reductions in both serum total and LDL cholesterol were
observed after consumption of 3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters for an
additional 6 weeks (p 0.05). The changes in serum levels of total and
LDL cholesterol were -9.3 percent and -15.2 percent, respectively, for
subjects consuming 3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters as compared to
control. Plant stanol ester consumption in RSO mayonnaise did not
change HDL cholesterol levels compared to control RSO mayonnaise.
Blomqvist et al. (Ref. 81) and Vanhanen et al. (Ref. 82) separately
reported the results of another study showing plasma cholesterol-
lowering effects of plant stanol esters dissolved in RSO mayonnaise.
After subjects replaced 50 g of their daily fat intake by 50 g of RSO
mayonnaise for 4 weeks, they were randomized into two groups, one that
continued with the original RSO mayonnaise (control group) and the
other with RSO mayonnaise in which 5.8 g of plant stanol ester was
dissolved (3.4 g/d of free plant stanols in 50 g of mayonnaise
preparation). After 6 weeks on the plant stanol ester-enriched diet,
plasma total and LDL cholesterol were reduced from 225 27
(control group) to 2- 34 mg/dL (plant stanol ester group)
(p 0.001) and from 134 18 (control group) to 124
32 mg/dL (plant stanol ester) (p 0.01), respectively (Ref.
81). In the report by
[[Page 54698]]
Blomqvist (Ref. 81), HDL cholesterol was reported to be significantly
lower in the plant stanol ester group compared to the control group.
Using the same data, with the exception that the number of control
subjects utilized in the analysis was 33 rather than 32 as in the
Blomqvist report, HDL cholesterol was reported to be unchanged in the
report by Vanhanen (Ref. 82). The agency does not give as much weight
to this study because the two reports lacked sufficient detail on the
reason for the varying number of control subjects.
Two reports of apparently the same study (Refs. 63 and 64) gave
inconclusive results regarding the relationship between plant stanol
ester consumption and blood cholesterol levels. Interpretation of this
study is complicated by design issues such as concerns about sample
size and level of plant sterol/stanol administered, but both reports
are discussed here and summarized in table 2 of this document because
they provide information to assist in determining the minimum level of
plant stanol esters necessary to provide a health benefit.
Miettinen and Vanhanen (Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study)) reported the
effect of small amounts of sitosterol (700 mg/d free sterols) and
sitostanol (700 mg/d free stanols) dissolved in 50 g RSO mayonnaise on
serum cholesterol in 31 subjects with hypercholesterolemia for 9 weeks.
Subjects did not change their diets except for replacing 50 g/d of
dietary fat with the 50 g/d of RSO mayonnaise. It appears that these
authors later conducted another 9-week phase of the study using
sitostanol esters (1.36 g/d plant stanol esters or 800 mg/d free
stanols) dissolved in 50 g RSO mayonnaise. The results of this later
phase were reported in the Miettinen reference (Ref. 63), together with
the earlier results. The Vanhanen reference (Ref. 64) reports only the
earlier results for sitosterol and sitostanol. The Vanhanen reference
(Ref. 64) reports reduced serum total cholesterol (8.5 percent)
concentrations during the RSO mayonnaise run-in period compared to
values before the run-in period when combining all subjects.
Continuation of RSO mayonnaise in the RSO mayonnaise control group
(n=8) during the experimental period had no further effect on blood
cholesterol (Refs. 63 and 64). Free sitostanol (n=7) did not
significantly alter serum total cholesterol or LDL cholesterol compared
to the RSO control group during the experimental period (Refs. 63 and
64). HDL cholesterol also did not change in the free sitostanol group
(Ref. 63). Serum total and LDL cholesterol were significantly reduced
in the sitostanol ester group (n=7), however (Ref. 63). The mean change
in serum total cholesterol from baseline was -7.4 mg/dL in the
sitostanol ester group, compared to +4.6 mg/dL in the control group (p
0.05). The mean change in LDL cholesterol from baseline was -7.7 mg/dL
in the sitostanol ester group compared to +3.1 mg/dL in the control
group (p 0.05). A statistically significant increase in HDL
cholesterol from baseline, however, was reported in the sitostanol
ester-treated group (Ref. 63).
The agency notes that it is difficult to decipher from the
descriptions in these reports the amount of plant stanol ester that was
consumed and the level of cholesterol-lowering that was observed. For
the sitostanol ester group, as an example, the experimental design
section states that 800 mg/d of sitostanol transesterified with RSO
fatty acids was added to the RSO mayonnaise, yet table 1 of this
document shows that the amount of sitostanol ester in the RSO
mayonnaise was 830 mg (Ref. 63). Since the conversion factor to obtain
the stanol ester equivalent of a given amount of free stanol is 1.7,
the amounts of sitostanol and sitostanol ester given in the
experimental design section and table 1 cannot both be correct. Based
on information in the results section of the Miettinen reference (Ref.
63), serum total cholesterol reduction in the sitostanol ester group
can be calculated to be approximately 18 percent as compared to
control, yet the abstract of the Vanhanen reference mentions that
sitostanol ester reduced serum total cholesterol by 7 percent (Ref.
63). Therefore, FDA considers the results in these reports inconclusive
because of inconsistencies in the descriptions of methods and results.
Two studies (Refs. 58 and 74) show a relationship between
consumption of plant stanols and reduced LDL cholesterol, but not blood
total cholesterol, in subjects consuming a diet within the range of a
typical American diet, although the diet was a controlled feeding
regimen formulated to meet Canadian recommended nutrient intakes.
Jones et al. (Ref. 58) reported the effects of consuming 2.94 g/d
of plant sterol esters in 23 g of margarine, 3.31 g/d of plant stanol
esters in 23 g of margarine (1.84 g/d free plant stanols; daily
margarine doses were divided into three equal portions and added to
each meal) and 23 g/d of control margarine for 21 days each, using a
controlled feeding crossover study design. During the experimental
period, subjects consumed a fixed-food North American diet formulated
to meet Canadian recommended nutrient intakes. The results from
consumption of the plant sterol ester margarine are discussed in
section III.C.1.b of this document. Plasma LDL cholesterol levels were
reduced by 6.4 percent (p 0.02) in the plant stanol ester group
compared to the control group. Plasma total cholesterol was not
significantly reduced in the plant stanol ester group. Plasma HDL
cholesterol did not differ across groups, and there was no significant
weight change shown by the subjects while consuming any of the
margarine mixtures.
Jones et al. (Ref. 74) evaluated the effects of a mixture of plant
stanols and plant sterols. The plant stanol compound sitostanol made up
about 20 percent of the mixture by weight. The remaining sterol
component of the mixture was mostly composed of the plant sterols
sitosterol and campesterol. These investigators evaluated the
cholesterol-lowering properties of this nonesterified plant sterol/
stanol mixture in a controlled feeding regimen based on a ``prudent,''
fixed-food North American diet formulated to meet Canadian recommended
nutrient intakes. Thirty-two hypercholesterolemic men were fed either a
diet of prepared foods alone or the same diet plus 1.7 g/d of the plant
sterol/stanol mixture (in 30 g/d of margarine, consumed during 3 meals)
for 30 days in a parallel study design. The plant sterol/stanol mixture
had no statistically significant effect on plasma total cholesterol
concentrations. However, LDL cholesterol concentrations on day 30 had
decreased by 8.9 percent (p 0.01) and 24.4 percent (p 0.001) with the
control and plant sterol/stanol-enriched diets, respectively. On day
30, LDL cholesterol concentrations were significantly lower (p 0.05)
by 15.5 percent in the group consuming the plant sterol/stanol mixture
compared to the control group. HDL cholesterol concentrations did not
change significantly during the study.
(c) Normocholesterolemics: ``typical'' or ``usual'' diets. Two
studies (Refs. 91 and 92) show a relationship between consumption of
plant stanols and reduced blood cholesterol in subjects with normal
cholesterol concentrations consuming a typical American diet.
Plat and Mensink (Ref. 92) examined the effects of two plant stanol
ester preparations in healthy subjects with normal serum cholesterol
levels. During a 4 week run-in period, 112 subjects consumed a rapeseed
oil margarine (20 g/d) and shortening (10 g/d). For the next 8 weeks,
42 subjects continued with these products, while the other
[[Page 54699]]
subjects received margarine (20 g/d) and shortening (10 g/d) with a
vegetable oil-based stanol ester mixture (6.8 g/d plant stanol esters
or 3.8 g/d free plant stanols) or pine wood-based stanol ester mixture
(6.8 g/d plant stanol ester or 4 g/d plant stanol). Subjects did not
change their diets except for replacing 30 g/d of dietary fat with the
30 g/d of test margarine and shortening. In the vegetable oil plant
stanol ester group, the mean change in serum total cholesterol from
baseline was -16.6 mg/dL, compared to -1.6 mg/dL in the control group
(p 0.001). In the pine wood stanol ester group, the mean change in
serum total cholesterol from baseline was -16.3 mg/dL compared to -1.6
mg/dL in the control group (p 0.001). Compared to consumption of a
control margarine and shortening, consumption of 6.8 g/d of vegetable
oil-based stanol esters lowered LDL cholesterol by 14.6
8.0 percent (p 0.001). Consumption of 6.8 g/d of the pine wood-based
stanol esters showed a comparable decrease of 12.8 11.2
percent (p 0.001) in comparison to control margarine consumption.
Decreases in LDL cholesterol were not significantly different between
the two experimental groups (p= 0.793). Serum HDL cholesterol did not
change during the study.
Niinikoski et al. (Ref. 91) randomly assigned 24 subjects with
normal serum cholesterol levels to use either a plant stanol ester
margarine (5.1 g/d plant stanol esters; 3 g/d of free plant stanols) or
ordinary rapeseed oil margarine (control) for 5 weeks. Subjects
followed their normal diets, except for substituting the test or
control margarine for normal dietary fat intake. During the study
period the mean plus/minus standard deviation for serum total
cholesterol decreased more in the plant stanol ester spread group (-31
plus/minus 19.4) compared to the ordinary rapeseed oil spread group (-
11.6 plus/minus 19.4) (p 0.05). Serum non-HDL (LDL plus very low
density lipoprotein) cholesterol also decreased more in the plant
stanol ester group (-31 plus/minus 23) compared to the control group (-
11.6 plus/minus 19.4) (p 0.05), but the plant stanol ester spread did
not influence HDL cholesterol concentration (p= 0.71 between groups).
(d) Other studies: research synthesis study. As discussed in
section III.C.1.d of this document, the agency considered the results
of a March 25, 2000, research synthesis study (Ref. 100) of the effect
of plant sterols and plant stanols on serum cholesterol concentrations
as supporting evidence on the relationship between plant sterol/stanol
esters and CHD. In this research synthesis study, the combined effect
of plant sterols and stanols on serum cholesterol concentrations was
analyzed by pooling data from 14 randomized trials that employed either
a parallel or crossover design, consisting of 20 dose comparisons of
either plant sterols or plant stanols to a control vehicle. The data
described the effects on serum LDL cholesterol concentrations obtained
from using spreads (or, in some cases, mayonnaise, olive oil, or
butter) with and without added plant sterols or stanols.
Based on the placebo-adjusted reduction in serum LDL cholesterol,
the analysis indicated that 2 g of plant sterol (equivalent to 3.2 g/d
of plant sterol esters) or plant stanol (equivalent to 3.4 g/d of plant
stanol esters) added to a daily intake of spread (or mayonnaise, olive
oil, or butter) reduces serum concentrations of LDL cholesterol by an
average of 20.9 mg/dL in people aged 50 to 59 (p=0.005), 16.6 mg/dL in
those aged 40 to 49 (p=0.005), and 12.8 mg/dL in those aged 30 to 39
(p=0.005). The results indicated that the reduction in the
concentration of LDL cholesterol at each dose is significantly greater
in older people versus younger people. Reductions in blood total
cholesterol concentrations were similar to the LDL cholesterol
reductions and there was little change in serum concentrations of HDL
cholesterol. The results of this analysis also suggested that doses
greater than about 2 g of plant sterol (3.2 g/d of plant sterol esters)
or stanol (3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters) per day would not result in
further reduction in LDL cholesterol.
Observational studies and randomized trials concerning the
relationship between serum cholesterol and the risk of heart disease
(Ref. 101) indicate that for people aged 50 to 59, a reduction in LDL
cholesterol of about 19.4 mg/dL (0.5 mmol/l) translates into a 25
percent reduction in the risk of heart disease after about 2 years.
Studies administering plant sterols and stanols have demonstrated the
potential to provide this protection. According to Law, the
cholesterol-lowering capacity of plant sterols and stanols is even
larger than the effect that could be expected to occur if people ate
less animal fat (or saturated fat) (Ref. 100).
Community Intervention Study
The plant stanol ester petitioner also submitted a community
intervention study by Puska et al. (Ref. 102) that described the
relationship between consumption of plant stanol ester-containing
margarine and serum total cholesterol concentrations in North Karelia,
Finland. FDA considered this study as supporting evidence for the
relationship between plant stanol esters and CHD. In the early 1970's,
Finland had the highest cardiovascular-related mortality in the world.
Since 1972, active prevention programs carried out in the framework of
the North Karelia Project have reduced these high rates. A central
target of these programs was promotion of dietary changes to reduce
population cholesterol levels. In spite of great success in the 1970's
and 1980's, cholesterol levels at the end of the 1980's remained, by
international standards, relatively high in North Karelia, especially
in rural areas. The Village Cholesterol Competition was introduced as
an innovative method to promote further cholesterol reduction in the
population. Puska et al. (Ref. 102) describe two competitions (1991 and
1997) in which serum cholesterol values of subjects ages 20 to 70 years
in participating villages were measured twice during a 2 month period.
The village with the greatest mean reduction in serum cholesterol was
awarded a monetary prize. The 1991 competition is not relevant to this
interim rule because plant stanol ester-containing spreads were not
available at the time. However, the 1997 competition is relevant
because plant stanol ester-containing spreads had become available and,
as discussed below, were consumed by a significant number of
participants. Subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire about
demographic factors, risk factors, dietary changes, and physical
activity. The questionnaire included specific questions on changes in
use of milk, fat spreads, fat used for baking, and food preparation.
Participating villages were responsible for arranging intervention
activities and blood cholesterol measurements.
Sixteen villages, with a total of 1,333 participants, were included
in the results. There were 8 weeks between the initial and final blood
cholesterol measurements. Approximately 24 percent of the participants
changed their fat spread on bread to recommended alternatives (e.g.,
from butter to margarine), but 57 percent did not make any changes in
their choice of spread. Use of plant stanol ester-containing spread
increased nearly fivefold, whereas use of butter, butter-vegetable oil
mixture and normal vegetable margarine use declined. Approximately 200
participants began to use plant stanol ester spread during the
competition as their fat spread on bread.
The winning village had an average serum total cholesterol
reduction of 16 percent (p 0.001). Results for each village were
calculated as the mean percent reduction in individual
[[Page 54700]]
cholesterol levels. The mean reduction in serum total cholesterol of
all participating villages was 9 percent (p 0.001). In 14 of 16
villages, the reduction between the initial and final blood cholesterol
measurements was statistically significant (p 0.05). The investigators
observed that the greater the self-reported daily use of the plant
stanol ester spread, the greater the serum cholesterol reduction.
Furthermore, of those who reported using more than 5 teaspoonfuls per
day of plant stanol ester-containing spread, an average serum total
cholesterol reduction of 21.3 percent was achieved.
(e) Summary. In two (Refs. 77 and 80) of three (Refs. 77, 80, and
97) studies of hypercholesterolemic subjects consuming low saturated
fat and low cholesterol diets, plant stanol ester intake was associated
with statistically significant decreases in total and LDL cholesterol
levels when compared to a control group. Levels of HDL cholesterol were
found to be unchanged (Refs. 77, 80, and 97).
Levels of plant stanol esters found to be effective in lowering
total and LDL cholesterol levels, in the context of a diet low in
saturated fat and cholesterol, were 3.4 g (Ref. 80) and 3.9 g (Ref. 77)
(equivalent to 2 and 2.31 g of free plant stanols, respectively). Other
results from one of these studies (Ref. 77) reported a statistically
significant effect of 3.9 g/d of vegetable oil stanol esters (2.16 g/d
of free plant stanols) on blood total cholesterol, but not LDL
cholesterol. Dietary supplementation with 3 g of plant stanols per day
(equivalent to 5.1 g/d of plant stanol esters) to hypercholesterolemic
subjects consuming a low saturated fat and low cholesterol diet (Ref.
97) did not significantly lower plasma total or LDL cholesterol.
In 10 of 10 studies of hypercholesterolemic subjects consuming
``usual'' diets (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 74, 78, 81 and 82
(1 study), 88 through 90, and 94), plant stanol ester intake was
associated with statistically significant decreases in blood total and/
or LDL cholesterol levels. In seven (Refs. 58, 67, 74, 88 through 90,
and 94) of these ten studies, HDL cholesterol levels were not
significantly affected by plant stanol dietary treatment. In 2 studies
(Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study) and 78) of the 10 studies, plant stanol
esters were reported to increase the levels of HDL cholesterol from
baseline levels. Two separate published reports of another study (Refs.
81 and 82) were inconsistent in their description of effects on HDL
cholesterol. One publication (Ref. 81) reported HDL cholesterol to be
significantly lower in the plant stanol ester group compared to a
control group, but the other publication reported that the difference
in HDL cholesterol between the two groups was not significant (Ref.
82). This incongruity may be due to the difference in the number of
control subjects utilized in the analysis between the two publications.
The agency notes that the majority of studies do not report a
statistically significant change in HDL cholesterol in the plant stanol
ester groups compared to the control groups.
Levels of plant stanol esters found to be effective in lowering
total and/or LDL cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic subjects
consuming a ``usual'' diet ranged from 1.36 to 5.8 g/d (equivalent to
0.8 to 3.4 g/d of free plant stanols) (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study),
67, 74, 78, 81 and 82 (1 study), 88 through 90, and 94). In the study
by Hallikainen et al. (Ref. 88), 1.4 g/d plant stanol ester (0.8 g/d of
free plant stanol) did not significantly reduce serum cholesterol
levels, but intakes of 2.7, 4.1, and 5.4 g/d of plant stanol esters
(1.6, 2.4, and 3.2 g/d of free plant stanols, respectively) were found
to significantly reduce both serum total and LDL cholesterol levels. In
another of the 10 studies described above (Ref. 94), subjects consuming
a higher dose (3.4 g/d, equivalent to 2 g/d of free plant stanols) of
plant stanol esters showed statistically significant reductions in both
blood total and LDL cholesterol, but a lower dose of plant stanol
esters (1.36 g/d, equivalent to 0.8 g/d of free plant stanols) showed
reductions in blood total, but not in LDL cholesterol. The results of
the study by Miettinen and Vanhanen (Refs. 63 and 64) are inconclusive.
This may be due to lack of statistical power (e.g., sample size too
small to detect the hypothesized difference between groups) or too low
a dose of plant stanols to provide an effect. As previously discussed,
the descriptions of methods and results also were inconsistent and
difficult to interpret. Although these investigators reported (Ref. 63)
a statistically significant effect of 1.36 g/d plant stanol esters
(equivalent to 0.8 g/d of free plant stanols) on reducing serum total
and LDL cholesterol compared to a control group, there was no effect of
700 mg/d of the free plant stanols (equivalent to 1.19 g/d of plant
stanol esters) on blood cholesterol levels.
Two studies (Refs. 91 and 92) examined the effects of plant stanol
esters in healthy adults with normal cholesterol levels consuming a
``usual'' diet. Both of these studies demonstrated significant
decreases in blood total and LDL cholesterol or non-HDL cholesterol
levels when compared to controls. Levels of plant stanol esters found
to be effective were 6.8 g/d (vegetable oil stanol esters; 3.8 g/d of
free plant stanols) (Ref. 92), 6.8 g/d (pine wood stanol esters; 4 g/d
of free plant stanols) (Ref. 92), and 5.1 g/d (source unreported;
approximately 3 g/d of free plant stanols) (Ref. 91). HDL cholesterol
levels were not significantly affected by plant stanol consumption in
these reports.
Based on these studies, FDA finds there is scientific evidence for
a consistent, clinically significant effect of plant stanol esters on
blood total and LDL cholesterol. The cholesterol-lowering effect of
plant stanol esters is consistent in both mildly and moderately
hypercholesterolemic populations and in populations with normal
cholesterol concentrations. The cholesterol-lowering effect of plant
stanol esters has been reported in addition to the effects of a low
saturated fat and low cholesterol diet. Most studies also report that
plant stanols do not affect HDL cholesterol levels. These conclusions
are drawn from the review of the well controlled clinical studies and
are supported by the research synthesis study of Law (Ref. 100) and the
community intervention trial of Puska et al. (Ref. 102).
IV. Decision to Authorize a Health Claim Relating Plant Sterol/
Stanol Esters to Reduction in Risk of CHD
A. Relationship Between Plant Sterol Esters and CHD
The plant sterol esters petition provided information on pertinent
human studies that evaluated the effects on serum total cholesterol and
LDL cholesterol levels from dietary intervention with plant sterols or
plant sterol esters in subjects with normal to mildly or moderately
elevated serum cholesterol levels. FDA reviewed the information in the
petition as well as other pertinent studies identified by the agency's
literature search.
FDA concludes that, based on the totality of publicly available
scientific evidence, there is significant scientific agreement to
support a relationship between consumption of plant sterol esters and
the risk of CHD. The evidence that plant sterol esters affect the risk
of CHD is provided by studies that measured the effect of plant sterol
ester consumption on the two major risk factors for CHD, serum total
and LDL cholesterol.
In most intervention trials in subjects with mildly to moderately
elevated cholesterol levels (total cholesterol 300 mg/dL), plant sterol
esters were found to
[[Page 54701]]
reduce blood total and/or LDL cholesterol levels to a significant
degree (Refs. 57, 58, 61 and 62 (1 study), 67, and 74). Moreover, HDL
cholesterol levels were unchanged (Refs. 57, 58, 61 and 62 (1 study),
67, and 74). Results in normocholesterolemic subjects (Refs. 51, 65,
and 75) were similar to the results in mildly to moderately
hypercholesterolemic subjects.
Most of the studies in subjects with mildly to moderately elevated
cholesterol levels used ``usual'' diets in either a controlled feeding
(Refs. 58 and 74) or free-living (Refs. 57, 63 and 64 (1 study), and
67) situation, but one study used a low saturated fat, low cholesterol
diet during the study (Refs. 61 and 62 (1 study)). All three of the
studies in subjects with normal blood cholesterol levels used ``usual''
diets in either a controlled feeding (Refs. 51 and 65) or free-living
(Ref. 75) situation. Plant sterol esters have been reported to lower
blood cholesterol levels in subjects with mildly to moderately elevated
cholesterol consuming either a ``usual'' diet or low saturated fat, low
cholesterol diet and in subjects with normal blood cholesterol levels
consuming ``usual'' diets. Therefore, the evidence suggests that the
blood cholesterol-lowering response occurs regardless of the type of
background diet subjects consume.
Plant sterols (esterified or free) were tested in either a spread,
margarine, or butter carrier and produced fairly consistent results
regardless of the food carrier and apparent differences in processing
techniques. Given the variability of amounts and of food carriers in
which plant sterols and plant sterol esters were provided in the diets
studied, the response of blood cholesterol levels to plant sterols
appears to be consistent and substantial, except for plant sterols from
sheanut oil and ricebran oil (Refs. 67 and 75).
Based on the totality of the publicly available scientific
evidence, the agency concludes that there is significant scientific
agreement that plant sterol esters from certain sources will help
reduce serum cholesterol and that such reductions may reduce the risk
of CHD. Section 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(A)(1) (discussed in section V.C of
this document) specifies the plant sterol esters that have been
demonstrated to have a relationship to the risk of CHD. In the majority
of clinical studies evaluating plant sterols or plant sterol esters,
blood total and LDL cholesterol were the lipid fractions shown to be
the most affected by plant sterol intervention. As discussed in section
I of this document, reviews by Federal agencies and other scientific
bodies have concluded that there is substantial epidemiologic and
clinical evidence that high blood levels of total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol represent major contributors to CHD and that dietary
factors that decrease blood total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol will
affect the risk of CHD (56 FR 60727 at 60728, and Refs. 18 through 21).
Given all of this evidence, the agency is authorizing a health
claim on the relationship between plant sterol esters and reduced risk
of CHD.
B. Relationship Between Plant Stanol Esters and CHD
The plant stanol esters petition provided information on pertinent
human studies that evaluated the effects on serum total cholesterol and
LDL cholesterol levels from dietary intervention with plant stanols or
plant stanol esters in subjects with normal to mildly or moderately
elevated serum cholesterol levels. FDA reviewed the information in the
plant stanol esters petition as well as other pertinent studies from
the plant sterol esters petition and from the studies identified by the
agency's literature search.
FDA concludes that, based on the totality of publicly available
scientific evidence, there is significant scientific agreement to
support a relationship between consumption of plant stanol esters and
the risk of CHD. The evidence that plant stanol esters affect the risk
of CHD is provided by studies that measured the effect of plant stanol
ester consumption on the two major risk factors for CHD, serum total
and LDL cholesterol.
In most intervention trials in subjects with mildly to moderately
elevated cholesterol levels (total cholesterol 300 mg/dL), plant stanol
esters were found to reduce blood total and/or LDL cholesterol levels
to a significant degree (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 74, 77, 78,
80, 81 and 82 (1 study), 88 through 90, and 94). Moreover, HDL
cholesterol levels were unchanged in most intervention studies (Refs.
58, 67, 74, 77, 80, 88 through 90, and 94). Results in
normocholesterolemic subjects (Refs. 91 and 92) were similar to the
results in mildly to moderately hypercholesterolemic subjects.
Most of the studies in subjects with mildly to moderately elevated
cholesterol levels used ``usual'' diets in either a controlled feeding
(Refs. 58 and 74) or free-living (Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 78, 81
and 82 (1 study), 88 through 90, and 94) situation, but three studies
used a low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet during the study (Refs.
77, 80 and 97). Both of the studies in subjects with normal blood
cholesterol levels (Refs. 91 and 92) used ``usual'' diets in a free-
living situation. Plant stanol esters have been reported to lower blood
cholesterol levels in subjects with mildly to moderately elevated
cholesterol consuming either a ``usual'' diet or low saturated fat, low
cholesterol diet and in subjects with normal blood cholesterol levels
consuming ``usual'' diets. Therefore, the evidence suggests that the
blood cholesterol-lowering response occurs regardless of the type of
background diet subjects consume.
Plant stanol esters were tested in either a spread, margarine,
butter, mayonnaise or shortening carrier and produced fairly consistent
results regardless of the food carrier and apparent differences in
processing techniques. Given the variability of amounts and food
carriers in which plant stanol esters were provided in the diets
studied, the response of blood cholesterol levels appears to be
consistent and substantial.
Based on the totality of the publicly available scientific
evidence, the agency concludes that there is significant scientific
agreement that plant stanol esters will help reduce blood cholesterol
and that such reductions may reduce the risk of CHD. Section
101.83(c)(2)(ii)(B)(1) (discussed in section V.C of this document)
specifies the plant stanol esters that have been demonstrated to have a
relationship to the risk of CHD. In the majority of clinical studies
evaluating plant stanol esters, blood total and LDL cholesterol were
the lipid fractions shown to be the most affected by plant stanol
intervention. As discussed in section I of this document, reviews by
Federal agencies and other scientific bodies have concluded that there
is substantial epidemiologic and clinical evidence that high blood
levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol represent major
contributors to CHD and that dietary factors that decrease blood total
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol will affect the risk of CHD (56 FR
60727 at 60728, and Refs. 18 through 21).
Given all of this evidence, the agency is authorizing a health
claim on the relationship between plant stanol esters and reduced risk
of CHD.
V. Description and Rationale for Components of Health Claim
A. Relationship Between Plant Sterol/Stanol Esters and CHD and the
Significance of the Relationship
New section 101.83(a) describes the relationship between diets
containing plant sterol/stanol esters and the risk of CHD. In
Sec. 101.83(a)(1), the agency recounts that CHD is the most common and
serious form of CVD, and that CHD
[[Page 54702]]
refers to diseases of the heart muscle and supporting blood vessels.
This paragraph also notes that high blood total and LDL cholesterol
levels are associated with increased risk of developing CHD and
identifies the levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol that
would put an individual at high risk of developing CHD, as well as
those blood cholesterol levels that are associated with borderline high
risk. This information will assist consumers in understanding the
seriousness of CHD.
In Sec. 101.83(a)(2), the agency recounts that populations with a
low incidence of CHD tend to have low blood total and LDL cholesterol
levels. This paragraph states that these populations also tend to have
dietary patterns that are low in total fat, saturated fat, and
cholesterol, and high in plant foods that contain fiber and other
components. This information is consistent with that provided in the
regulations authorizing health claims for fiber-containing fruits,
vegetables, and grain products and CHD (Sec. 101.77), soluble fiber
from certain foods and CHD (Sec. 101.81), and soy protein and CHD
(Sec. 101.82). The agency believes that this information provides a
basis for a better understanding of the numerous factors that
contribute to the risk of CHD, including the relationship of plant
sterol/stanol esters and diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol to
the risk of CHD.
Section 101.83(a)(3) states that diets that include plant sterol/
stanol esters may reduce the risk of CHD.
Section 101.83(b) describes the significance of the diet-disease
relationship. In Sec. 101.83(b)(1), the agency recounts that CHD
remains a major public health concern in the United States because the
disease accounts for more deaths than any other disease or group of
diseases. The regulation states that early management of modifiable CHD
risk factors, such as high blood total and LDL cholesterol levels, is a
major public health goal that can assist in reducing the risk of CHD.
This information is consistent with the evidence that lowering blood
total and LDL cholesterol levels reduces the risk of CHD (56 FR 60727,
58 FR 2739, and Refs. 18 through 21 and 50). Section 101.83(b)(2)
states that including plant sterol/stanol esters in the diet helps to
lower blood total and LDL cholesterol levels. FDA concludes that this
statement is scientifically valid based on the evidence that it has
reviewed on this diet-disease relationship.
B. Nature of the Claim
In new Sec. 101.83(c)(1), FDA is providing that the general
requirements for health claims in Sec. 101.14 must be met, except that
the disqualifying level for total fat per 50 g in Sec. 101.14(a)(4)
does not apply to spreads and dressings for salad, and the minimum
nutrient contribution requirement in Sec. 101.14(e)(6) does not apply
to dressings for salad. FDA has decided to except these plant sterol/
stanol ester products from the specified requirements in
Sec. 101.14(a)(4) and (e)(6) because it has determined that permitting
the health claim on such products will help consumers develop a dietary
approach that will result in significantly lower blood cholesterol
levels and an accompanying reduction in the risk of heart disease. The
basis for this decision is discussed in more detail in section V.D of
this document. The agency is requesting comments on this decision.
In Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i), FDA is authorizing a health claim on the
relationship between diets that contain plant sterol/stanol esters and
the risk of CHD. The agency is authorizing this health claim based on
its review of the scientific evidence on this substance-disease
relationship, which shows that diets that contain plant sterol/stanol
esters help to reduce total and LDL cholesterol (Refs. 51, 57, 58, 61
and 62 (1 study), 63 and 64 (1 study), 65, 67, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81
and 82 (1 study), 88 through 92, and 94). This result is significant
for the risk of heart disease because elevated levels of total and LDL
cholesterol are associated with increased risk of CHD (Refs. 18 through
21).
In Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(A), FDA is requiring, consistent with other
health claims to reduce the risk of CHD, that the claim state that
plant sterol/stanol esters should be consumed as part of a diet low in
saturated fat and cholesterol. The agency acknowledges that most of the
scientific evidence for an effect of plant sterol/stanol esters on
blood cholesterol levels was provided by studies that used ``usual''
diets (Refs. 51, 57, 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 65, 67, 74, 75, 78, 81
and 82 (1 study), 88 through 92, and 94). Some studies used low fat,
low cholesterol diets and also found a cholesterol-lowering effect of
plant sterol/stanol esters (Refs. 61 and 62 (1 study), 77, and 80). The
results were consistent across studies, regardless of the background
diet used. However, not all studies reported whether reductions in
cholesterol were achieved as compared to baseline. The results of one
study that investigated the effects of plant stanol esters added to
butter (Ref. 78) suggest that plant stanol esters may not be able to
fully counteract the impact of a high saturated fat diet on blood
cholesterol levels. In that study, plant stanol esters added to butter
significantly reduced both serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol
compared to control (butter alone), but there was no significant
reduction in either serum total or LDL cholesterol compared to
baseline. Since there must be a cholesterol reduction compared to
baseline in order for risk of CHD to decrease, it would be misleading
for the claim to imply that plant sterol/stanol esters affect the risk
of CHD regardless of diet, when that may not be the case.
In addition, as more fully discussed in section V.A of this
document, CHD is a major public health concern in the United States,
and the totality of the scientific evidence provides strong and
consistent support that diets high in saturated fat and cholesterol are
associated with elevated levels of blood total and LDL cholesterol and,
thus, CHD (56 FR 60727 at 60737). The majority of Americans consume
amounts of total fat and saturated fat that exceed the recommendations
made in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (Ref. 103). For example,
from 1994 to 1996 only about one-third of Americans age 2 and older
consumed no more than 30 percent of calories from total fat and only
about one-third consumed less than 10 percent calories from saturated
fat (Ref. 104). Dietary guidelines from both government and private
scientific bodies conclude that the majority of the American population
would benefit from decreased consumption of dietary saturated fat and
cholesterol (Refs. 18 through 21). Thus, the agency finds that it will
be more helpful to Americans' efforts to maintain healthy dietary
practices if claims about the effect of plant sterol/stanol esters on
the risk of CHD also recommend a diet low in saturated fat and
cholesterol.
Moreover, the agency finds that for the public to understand fully,
in the context of the total daily diet, the significance of consumption
of plant sterol/stanol esters on the risk of CHD (see section
403(r)(3)(B)(iii) of the act), information about the total diet must be
included as part of the claim. Therefore, the agency believes the plant
sterol/stanol-containing food product bearing the health claim should
provide information on consuming plant sterol/stanol esters in the
context of a healthy diet. In fact, as evidenced by the requirement in
section 403(r)(3)(B)(iii) of the act that health claims be stated so
that the public may understand the significance of the information in
the context of ``a total daily diet,'' Congress intended FDA to
consider the role of substances in food in a way that will enhance the
chances of consumers constructing diets that are balanced and
[[Page 54703]]
healthful overall (Ref. 105). Therefore, the agency finds that the
health claim that is the subject of this interim rule should be
consistent with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2000 (Ref. 103)
guideline for fat and saturated fat intake, which states, ``Choose a
diet that is low in saturated fat and cholesterol and moderate in total
fat.''
In Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(B), the agency is requiring, consistent
with other health claims, that the relationship be qualified with the
terms ``may'' or ``might.'' These terms are used to make clear that not
all persons can necessarily expect to benefit from these dietary
changes (see 56 FR 60727 at 60740 and 58 FR 2552 at 2573) or to
experience the same degree of blood cholesterol reduction. The
requirement that the claim use the term ``may'' or ``might'' to relate
the ability of plant sterol/stanol esters to reduce the risk of CHD is
also intended to reflect the multifactorial nature of the disease.
In Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(C), the agency is requiring, consistent
with other authorized health claims, that the terms ``coronary heart
disease'' or ``heart disease'' be used in specifying the disease. These
terms are commonly used in dietary guidance materials, and therefore
they should be readily understandable to the consumer (see 56 FR 60727
at 60740 and 58 FR 2552 at 2573).
In Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(D), the agency is requiring that the claim
specify the substance as ``plant sterol esters'' or ``plant stanol
esters,'' except that if the sole source of plant sterols or stanols is
vegetable oil, the claim may use the term ``vegetable oil sterol
esters'' or ``vegetable oil stanol esters,'' as appropriate.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(i)(E), consistent with other authorized health
claims, requires that the claim not attribute any degree of risk
reduction of CHD to consumption of diets that contain plant sterol/
stanol esters. Also consistent with other authorized claims,
Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(F) requires that the claim not imply that
consumption of diets that contain plant sterol/stanol esters is the
only recognized means of reducing CHD risk.
Investigators have estimated the size of the reduction in risk of
heart disease produced by a given reduction in blood cholesterol
concentration according to age and the time needed to attain the full
reduction in risk (Ref. 101), but these data are population estimates
and do not reflect individual risk reduction potential. Moreover,
population risk reduction estimates from plant sterol/stanol ester
consumption cannot be determined because the data do not reveal a
consistent level of blood cholesterol reduction for a given plant
sterol/stanol ester intake level. Therefore, the plant sterol/stanol
ester studies that the agency reviewed do not provide a basis for
determining the percent reduction in risk of CHD likely to be realized
from consuming plant sterol/stanol esters, and therefore claims of a
particular degree of risk reduction would be misleading.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(i)(G) requires that the claim specify the
daily dietary intake of plant sterol or stanol esters needed to reduce
the risk of CHD and the contribution one serving of the product makes
to achieving the specified daily dietary intake. This requirement is
consistent with requirements set forth in Secs. 101.81 and 101.82.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(i)(G)(1) specifies the daily dietary intake of
plant sterol esters needed to reduce the risk of CHD.
In the studies the agency reviewed that show a statistically
significant effect of plant sterols on total and LDL cholesterol, the
amounts fed ranged from 0.74 to 8.6 g/d of free plant sterols, which is
equivalent to approximately 1.2 to 13.8 g/d of plant sterol esters
(Refs. 51, 57, 58, 61 and 62 (1 study), 65, 67, and 75). (Without the
high outlier of 8.6 g/d of free plant sterol ester consumed in one
study (Ref. 51), the range is 0.74 g/d to 3.24 g/d of free plant
sterols (Refs. 57, 58, 61 and 62 (1 study), 65, 67, and 75.)) In
proposing 1 g/d of free plant sterols (1.6 g/d plant sterol esters) as
the daily dietary intake level associated with reduced risk of CHD, the
plant sterol ester petitioner asserted (Ref. 1, page 41) that intakes
above 1 g/d have consistently been shown to lower blood total and LDL
cholesterol, citing the studies by Maki et al. (Refs. 61 and 62 (1
study), Hendriks et al. (Ref. 57), and Weststrate and Meijer (Ref. 67),
but that intakes below this level have not. As support for the latter
statement, the petitioner cited the reports by Miettinen and Vanhanen
(Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study)), which found no statistically significant
blood cholesterol reduction from consumption of 0.7 of plant sterols
(equivalent to 1.12 g/d of plant sterol esters).
Although the agency agrees with the plant sterol ester petitioner
that free plant sterol consumption of greater than 1 g/d (1.6 g/d of
plant sterol esters) has consistently been shown to lower total and LDL
cholesterol levels (Refs. 51, 57, 58, 61 and 62 (1 study), and 67), the
agency reviewed the studies to determine whether there is a lower level
at which consumption of plant sterols has consistently shown
cholesterol-lowering effects. There were three studies (Refs. 57, 65,
and 75) that found a statistically significant reduction in cholesterol
with free plant sterol consumption less than 1 g/d. Hendriks et al.
(Ref. 57) reported the effects of feeding three different levels of
plant sterol esters, including 1.33 g/d (equivalent to 0.83 g/d free
plant sterols). At that intake level, blood total cholesterol decreased
by 4.9 percent (p 0.001), and LDL cholesterol decreased by 6.7 percent
(p 0.001), compared to a control spread. Sierksma et al (Ref. 75)
reported that daily consumption of 0.8 g/d of free soybean oil sterols
lowered plasma total and LDL cholesterol concentrations by 3.8 percent
(p 0.05) and 6 percent (p 0.05), respectively, compared to a control
spread. Pelletier et al. (Ref. 65) reported a 10 percent reduction in
blood total cholesterol (p 0.001) and a 15 percent reduction in LDL
cholesterol (p 0.001), compared to a control group, in subjects
consuming 0.74 g/d of soybean sterols (nonesterified) in 50 g/d of
butter for 4 weeks.
For the purpose of setting the daily dietary intake level to be
used in the plant sterol esters and risk of CHD health claim, the
agency is placing greater emphasis on studies that incorporated plant
sterol esters into foods that will be permitted to bear the claim.
Therefore, the study by Pelletier et al. (Ref. 65), in which 0.74 g/d
of free plant sterols were incorporated into butter, rather than a
vegetable-based spread, is less relevant in determining a useful daily
intake level. (Butter would not be able to bear the claim because it
exceeds the disqualifying levels for cholesterol and saturated fat on a
50 gram basis.) The daily intake level utilized in the study by
Pelletier et al. (Ref. 65) is also very close to that used in the study
by Miettinen and Vanhanen (Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study)) which found that
0.7 g/d of free plant sterols did not result in statistically
significant reductions of blood total and LDL cholesterol. For the
purpose of setting a daily intake level, FDA therefore focused instead
on the intakes consumed in the Sierksma et al. report (Ref. 75), 0.8 g/
d of free plant sterols (equivalent to 1.3 g/d of plant sterol esters),
and the Hendriks et al. report (Ref. 57), 0.83 g/d of free plant
sterols (1.33 g/d of plant sterol esters). These two intake levels are
almost identical, and both resulted in statistically significant
reductions in blood total and LDL cholesterol. As previously noted, all
other studies with higher intakes of plant sterols also resulted in
statistically significant reductions of both blood total and LDL
cholesterol (Refs. 51, 57,
[[Page 54704]]
58, 61 and 62 (1 study), and 67). The agency therefore finds that
consumption of at least 0.8 g/d of free plant sterols, or 1.3 g/d of
plant sterol esters, has consistently been shown to lower blood total
and LDL cholesterol. Accordingly, FDA is providing in
Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(G)(1) that the daily intake of plant sterol esters
associated with reduced risk of CHD is 1.3 g or more of plant sterol
esters per day. The agency is asking for comments on this
determination.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(i)(G)(2) specifies the daily dietary intake of
plant stanol esters needed to reduce the risk of CHD. In the studies
the agency reviewed that show a statistically significant effect of
plant stanols on blood total and LDL cholesterol, the amounts fed
ranged from 0.8 to 4 g/d of free plant stanols, which is equivalent to
approximately 1.36 to 6.8 g/d of plant stanol esters (Refs. 63 and 64
(1 study), 67, 77, 78, 80, 81 and 82 (1 study), 88 through 92, and 94).
In proposing 3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters (2 g/d free plant stanols)
as the daily dietary intake level associated with reduced risk of CHD,
the plant stanol ester petitioner asserted (Ref. 6, page 12) that
intakes of at least 3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters have been shown to
significantly reduce blood total and LDL cholesterol, citing the
studies by Miettinen et al. (Ref. 89) and Nguyen (Ref. 90).
Although the agency agrees with the plant stanol ester petitioner
that plant stanol ester consumption of approximately 3.4 g/d has been
shown to significantly lower total and LDL cholesterol levels in
several studies (Refs. 80, 89, 90, and 94), FDA notes that two other
studies (Refs. 77 and 97) with an intake level of plant stanol esters
greater than 3.4 g/d did not report significant reductions in blood
total and LDL cholesterol levels. The study by Denke (Ref. 97) did not
find reductions in either total or LDL cholesterol after consumption of
a total daily intake of 3 g/d of free plant stanols (equivalent to 5.1
g/d of plant stanol esters). Unlike most of the other studies that the
agency reviewed, however, the Denke study (Ref. 97) was not a
randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study, but rather a fixed
sequence design. One result of this design was that during the plant
stanol dietary supplement phase the subjects consumed an additional 12
g of fat that they did not consume in other phases; this makes
comparisons between phases difficult, and therefore FDA gives less
weight to this study.
In a report by Hallikainen et al. (Ref. 77), total cholesterol, but
not LDL cholesterol, was significantly reduced after consumption of 3.9
g/d plant stanol esters from a vegetable oil source; this same study
reported statistically significant reductions in both blood total and
LDL cholesterol from a daily intake of 3.9 g/d of plant stanol esters
from a wood-derived source. After evaluating the relative effectiveness
of the vegetable oil and wood-derived plant stanol esters, however, the
authors of this study concluded that the cholesterol-lowering effects
of plant stanol esters from these two sources did not differ
significantly. Pointing out that there were no significant differences
in absolute or percentage changes in cholesterol concentrations between
the vegetable oil and wood-derived plant stanol ester groups and that
the percentage reduction in LDL cholesterol for the vegetable oil
stanol esters compared to control was ``almost significant'' (p =
0.072) , these authors concluded that both wood-derived stanol esters
and vegetable oil stanol esters reduce serum cholesterol concentrations
``with apparently equal efficacy.'' Another study supports this
conclusion. Plat et al. (Ref. 92) compared the reductions in blood
total and LDL cholesterol in subjects who consumed 6.8 g/d of wood-
derived stanol esters with the blood total and LDL cholesterol
reductions in subjects who consumed an equal amount of vegetable oil
stanol esters. Again, no statistically significant differences were
found; in numerical terms, the cholesterol reductions associated with
the vegetable oil stanol esters were slightly greater.
In light of the strong evidence (four studies) that 3.4 g/d of
plant stanol esters significantly lowers both total and LDL
cholesterol, FDA concludes that intakes of 3.4 g/d or more of plant
stanol esters can be expected to significantly lower both total and LDL
cholesterol. As explained above, the agency is giving less weight to
the Denke study (Ref. 97), in which the intake of plant stanols was
equivalent to 5.1 g/d of plant stanol esters, than to the four studies
at the 3.4 g/d intake (Refs. 80, 89, 90, and 94) because of a weakness
in the design of the Denke study. Although the failure of the
Hallikainen study (Ref. 77) to show a statistically significant
reduction in LDL cholesterol at 3.9 g/d of vegetable oil stanol esters
raises a question about whether the source of the plant stanol esters
affects the daily intake level necessary to achieve a benefit, it
appears that this was an anomalous result, as explained above. Two
studies (Refs. 77 and 92) have concluded that plant stanol esters from
vegetable oil and plant stanol esters from wood sources have equal
effectiveness in lowering both total and LDL cholesterol.
FDA also reviewed the studies to determine whether there is a level
lower than 3.4 g/d at which consumption of plant stanol esters has
consistently shown cholesterol-lowering effects. The lowest level at
which a study found statistically significant reductions in both total
and LDL cholesterol was 1.36 g/d of plant stanol esters (Refs. 63 and
64 (1 study)). However, another study at the same level reported a
statistically significant reduction in serum total but not LDL
cholesterol (Ref. 58). Further, a study by Hallikainen et al. (Ref. 88)
at a slightly higher level reported that 1.4 g/d of plant stanol esters
did not significantly reduce serum total or LDL cholesterol levels. The
same study (Ref. 88) reported that 2.7 g/d of plant stanol ester
significantly reduced serum total and LDL cholesterol levels. However,
Jones et al. (Ref. 58) found significant LDL cholesterol, but not total
cholesterol, reductions with intake of 3.31 g/d plant stanol esters
(Ref. 58). Thus, the agency was unable to find an intake level lower
than 3.4 g/d that consistently showed cholesterol-lowering effects for
both total and LDL cholesterol.
Except as previously noted for the studies by Denke (Ref. 97) and
Hallikainen (Ref. 77), all the studies with intakes of 3.4 g/d or more
of plant stanol esters resulted in statistically significant reductions
of both total and LDL cholesterol levels (Refs. 67, 77, 78, 80, 81 and
82 (1 study), 88 through 92, and 94). The agency agrees with the
petitioner that a total daily intake of at least 3.4 g/d of plant
stanol esters (equivalent to 2 g/d of free plant stanols) represents an
amount that has been shown to be effective in reducing blood
cholesterol. Accordingly, FDA is providing in
Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(G)(2) that the daily intake of plant stanol esters
associated with reduced risk of CHD is 3.4 g or more of plant stanol
esters per day. The agency is asking for comments on this
determination.
In Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(H), FDA is requiring the claim to state
that the daily dietary intake of plant sterol/stanol esters should be
consumed in two servings eaten at different times. In the studies
showing a statistically significant effect of plant sterols or plant
sterol esters on blood total and LDL cholesterol levels, subjects were
provided with and instructed to consume the daily intake of plant
sterols or plant sterol esters in two (Refs. 51, 57, 61 and 62 (1
study), and 67) or three (Refs. 58 and 74) servings at different times
of the day, or subjects were provided with the plant sterol-
[[Page 54705]]
containing food and asked to replace from 25 to 50 g of their typical
dietary fat intake with an equal amount of the test food over the
course of the day's dietary intake, usually during meals (Refs. 63 and
64 (1 study), 65, and 75). The agency concludes that, to be consistent
with the conditions of the studies on which the claim is based, the
daily intake of plant sterol esters should be consumed in at least two
servings eaten at different times during the day with other foods. For
the reasons given in section V.D.1.a of this document, FDA is
specifying two servings as the target number of servings.
Similarly, in the studies showing a statistically significant
effect of plant stanols or plant stanol esters on blood total and LDL
cholesterol levels, subjects were provided with and instructed to
consume the daily intake of plant stanols or plant stanol esters in two
(Ref. 67) or three (Refs. 58, 74, 80, and 88 through 92) servings at
different times of the day, or subjects were provided with the plant
stanol-containing food and asked to replace from 25 to 50 g of their
typical dietary fat intake with an equal amount of the test food over
the course of the day's dietary intake, usually during meals (Refs. 63
and 64 (1 study), 77, 78, 81 and 82 (1 study), and 94). The agency
concludes that, to be consistent with the conditions of the studies on
which the claim is based, the daily intake of plant stanol esters
should be consumed in at least two servings eaten at different times
during the day with other foods. For the reasons given in section
V.D.1.b of this document, FDA is specifying two servings as the target
number of servings.
C. Nature of the Substance
Section 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(A)(1) specifies the plant sterol esters
that have been demonstrated to have a relationship to the risk of CHD.
Plant sterols can be classified on structural and biosynthetical
grounds into 4-desmethyl sterols, 4-monomethyl sterols, and 4,4-
dimethyl sterols. Plant sterols of the 4-desmethyl sterol class are the
plant sterols that have demonstrated the blood cholesterol-lowering
effect (Refs. 51, 57, 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 65, 67, and 75). The
major 4-desmethyl sterols are beta-sitosterol, campesterol and
stigmasterol (Ref. 106).
Most of the studies that the agency reviewed used vegetable oil
sterols, particularly those derived from soybean oil, as the source of
beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol. These three 4-desmethyl
sterols are also the predominant sterols in corn and canola oil.
According to the plant sterol ester petitioner, the typical sterol
composition of plant sterol esters is as follows: beta-sitosterol
contributes from 30 to 65 percent (by weight) of the sterols,
campesterol contributes from 10 to 40 percent of the sterols, and
stigmasterol contributes from 6 to 30 percent of the sterols, with
other sterols making up no more than 9 percent of the total (Ref. 1,
appendix E). The composition of the vegetable oils used as sterol
sources in most of the studies that demonstrated a cholesterol-lowering
effect was similar (Refs. 51, 57, 58, 65, 67, and 75).
Ricebran oil and sheanut oil principally contain the methylated
sterols of the 4,4-dimethyl sterol class. Studies investigating the
effects of sterols from ricebran oil and sheanut oil on blood
cholesterol levels have not found a cholesterol-lowering effect (Refs.
67 and 75). The structure of the 4-desmethyl sterols is more similar to
cholesterol than the structure of 4,4-dimethyl sterols. Because of this
structural similarity, it has been suggested that the 4-desmethyl
sterols may offer more opportunity for competition with cholesterol for
incorporation into mixed micelles, one of the putative mechanisms for
the blood cholesterol-lowering action of sterols (Ref. 75).
In studies that found a significant effect on blood cholesterol
levels and reported the sterol composition of the plant sterol esters
tested, the total amount of the major 4-desmethyl sterols (beta-
sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol) provided to the subjects
during the experimental period ranged from 76 to 98 percent (Refs. 51,
57, 58, 65, 67, and 75), with only 1 study at 76 percent (Ref. 65). The
rest of the studies clustered toward the high end of the range, between
89 to 98 percent (Refs. 51, 57, 58, 67, and 75). The agency believes
there are a number of likely sources of variability in the sterol
composition of the plant sterol ester mixtures, including variability
in analytical determinations, processing, seasonal changes, and variety
of the crop used. FDA does not have data on the extent of variability
in sterol composition but has concluded that it is necessary to provide
for some such variability. Given the distribution of the sterol
composition percentages in the studies that showed significant effects
on blood cholesterol levels and the possible variability of plant
sterols in the finished product, FDA has decided to require that the
combined percentage of beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol
in the plant sterol component of plant sterol esters be 80 percent or
higher as a condition of eligibility to bear the health claim. The
agency requests comments on the variability of the level of beta-
sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol in plant sterols,
particularly with respect to the variability of these levels in the
plant sterol component of plant sterol ester products used in studies
that reported significant cholesterol-lowering effects.
The agency is specifying that only edible oils may be used as the
source oils for plant sterols. The agency is also specifying that food-
grade fatty acids must be used to esterify the plant sterols. Although
the agency is not specifying further the type of fatty acid, such as
chain length and degree of unsaturation, FDA expects that the fatty
acids will primarily be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids
to avoid increases in saturated fatty acid content of the final food
products.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(A)(1) provides that the plant sterol
substance that is the subject of the health claim for reduced risk of
CHD is plant sterol esters prepared by esterifying a mixture of plant
sterols from edible oils with food-grade fatty acids. Consistent with
information in the petition and the sterol composition of test
substances used in the studies that showed a cholesterol-lowering
effect, Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(A)(1) further provides that the plant
sterol mixture shall contain at least 80 percent beta-sitosterol,
campesterol, and stigmasterol (combined weight). The agency is
requesting comments on these requirements.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(A)(2) sets out FDA's decision that plant
sterol esters, when evaluated for compliance purposes by the agency,
will be measured by a method that is based upon a standard triglyceride
or cholesterol determination that uses sample saponification followed
by hexane extraction and includes an internal standard. The extract is
analyzed by gas chromatography. The method, found in appendix F of the
plant sterol esters petition (Ref. 1) and titled, ``Determination of
the Sterol Content in Margarines, Halvarines, Dressings, Fat Blends and
Sterol Fatty Acid Ester Concentrates By Capillary Gas Chromatography,''
developed by Unilever United States, Inc., dated February 1, 2000,
describes a gas chromatographic procedure for determination of the
total sterol content in margarines, halvarines (low fat spreads),
dressings, fats or fat blends and in sterol ester concentrates. The
method is designed for total sterol levels of approximately 10 percent
in margarines, fat and fat blends, 8 percent
[[Page 54706]]
in halvarines, from 3 to 10 percent in dressings, and approximately 60
percent in sterol ester concentrates. An internal standard is added for
quantification. The sample is saponified and the unsaponifiable portion
is extracted with heptane. The extract is then analyzed by gas
chromatography using a nonpolar stationary phase capillary column with
beta-cholestanol as an internal standard. The petitioner has submitted
data that demonstrate the precision and inter-analyst reproducibility
of the method (Ref. 1, appendix F). Specific sterols have been
identified based on gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)
analysis and comparison of data in the mass spectral library of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (Ref. 4). The
method has neither been subjected to validation through the Association
of Official Analytical Chemist's (AOAC's) collaborative study or peer-
verified method validation procedures, nor is it published in the open
literature. FDA is requesting comments on the suitability of the plant
sterol ester petitioner's method for assuring that foods bearing the
health claim contain the qualifying levels of plant sterol esters. In
this document, FDA is incorporating the plant sterol ester petitioner's
method by reference in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part
51. Copies of the method may be obtained from the Center for Food
Safety and Applied Nutrition's Office of Nutritional Products,
Labeling, and Dietary Supplements, Division of Nutrition Science and
Policy, 200 C St. SW., rm. 2831, Washington, DC 20204, and may be
examined at the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition's Library,
200 C St. SW., rm. 3321, Washington, DC, or at the Office of the
Federal Register, 800 North Capital St. NW., suite 700, Washington, DC.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(B)(1) specifies the plant stanol esters
that have been demonstrated to have a relationship to the risk of CHD.
Sitostanol and campestanol, the saturated (at the 5 position)
derivatives of beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol, are the
plant stanols that have demonstrated the blood cholesterol-lowering
effect (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 77, 78, 81 and 82 (1 study),
88 through 92, and 94). Like the sterols from which they derive,
sitostanol and campestanol are in the 4-desmethyl sterol class, and as
such are similar in structure to cholesterol. Sitostanol is formed by
the hydrogenation of beta-sitosterol, and also by the complete
hydrogenation of stigmasterol (stigmasterol has two double bonds that
are saturated during the hydrogenation process, whereas sitostanol has
one double bond that is saturated during the hydrogenation process).
Campestanol is formed by the hydrogenation of campesterol.
Most of the studies that the agency reviewed used vegetable oil
stanols or wood-derived plant stanols as the source of sitostanol and
campestanol. According to the plant stanol ester petitioner, the
stanols in plant stanol esters are derived from hydrogenated plant
sterol mixtures or extracted from plant sources (Ref. 8, page 18). In
studies that found a significant effect on blood cholesterol levels and
reported the stanol composition of the plant stanol esters tested, the
combined percentage of sitostanol and campestanol ranged from 64 to 100
percent by weight (Refs. 58, 63 and 64 (1 study), 67, 77, 78, 88, 90,
and 92), with only one study at 64 percent (Refs. 63 and 64 (1 study).
The rest of the studies clustered toward the high end of the range,
between 89 and 100 percent (Refs. 58, 67, 77, 78, 88, 90, and 92).
The agency believes there are a number of likely sources of
variability in the stanol composition of the plant stanol ester
mixtures, including variability in analytical determinations,
processing, seasonal changes, and variety of the crop used. FDA does
not have data on the extent of variability in stanol composition but
has concluded that it is necessary to provide for some such
variability. Given the distribution of the stanol composition
percentages in the studies that showed significant effects on blood
cholesterol levels and the possible variability of plant stanols in the
finished product, FDA has decided to require that the combined
percentage of sitostanol and campestanol in the plant stanol component
of plant stanol esters be 80 percent or higher as a condition of
eligibility to bear the health claim. The agency requests comments on
the variability of the level of sitostanol and campestanol in plant
stanols, particularly with respect to the variability of these levels
in the plant stanol component of plant stanol ester products used in
studies that reported significant cholesterol-lowering effects.
The agency is specifying the source material for plant stanols,
which may be either plant-derived oils or wood. The plant stanol ester
petitioner's GRAS determination, and consequently the agency's safe and
lawful conclusion in section II.B.3.b.i of this document, apply only to
plant stanols derived from edible oils or from byproducts of the kraft
paper pulping process (Ref. 46). Therefore, FDA is providing that
plant-derived oils used as the source for plant stanols must be edible
oils. If wood is used as the source material, the plant stanols must be
derived from byproducts of the kraft paper pulping process. The agency
is also specifying that food-grade fatty acids must be used to esterify
the plant stanols. Although the agency is not specifying further the
type of fatty acid, such as chain length and degree of unsaturation,
FDA expects that the fatty acids will primarily be monounsaturated or
polyunsaturated fatty acids to avoid increases in saturated fatty acid
content of the final food products.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(B)(1) provides that the plant stanol
substance that is the subject of the health claim for reduced risk of
CHD is plant stanol esters prepared by esterifying a mixture of plant
stanols derived from edible oils or byproducts of the kraft paper
pulping process with food-grade fatty acids. Consistent with the stanol
composition of test substances used in the studies that showed a
cholesterol-lowering effect, Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(B)(1) further
provides that the plant stanol mixture shall contain at least 80
percent sitostanol and campestanol (combined weight). The agency is
requesting comments on these requirements.
Section 101.83(c)(2)(ii)(B)(2) sets out FDA's decision that plant
stanol esters, when evaluated for compliance purposes by the agency,
will be measured using a standard cholesterol determination that uses
sample saponification, followed by heptane extraction, derivatization
to trimethylsilyl ethers and analyzed by gas chromatography.
The plant stanol ester petition (Refs. 8, 11, and 14) provided the
following four analytical methods developed by McNeil Consumer
Healthcare dated February 15, 2000, for use in different food matrices.
The method titled ``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in
Benecol \3\ Tub Spread'' describes a procedure for
determination of stanols and sterols in tub spreads containing 6 to 18
percent stanol esters. The primary analytes are sitostanol,
campestanol, sitosterol and campesterol. Samples are saponified
directly with alcoholic potassium hydroxide. Stanols and sterols remain
in the unsaponified fraction and are extracted with hexane. The
extracted stanols and sterols are then derivatized to trimethylsilyl
ethers and analyzed by gas chromatography. The internal standard
utilized is cholestanol.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\3\ Benecol'' is the plant stanol ester petitioner's
brand of plant stanol ester-containing food products.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54707]]
The method titled ``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in Benecol
Snack Bars'' is suitable for the determination of stanols and sterols
in snack bars containing 2.5 to 7.5 percent stanol esters. The method
titled ``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in Benecol
Dressing'' is suitable for determination of stanols and sterols in
dressing for salad containing 3 to 8 percent stanol esters. Both the
dressing for salad and snack bar procedures are similar to that
described above for Benecol tub spread.
The method titled ``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in
Benecol Softgels'' describes a procedure for determination of
stanols and sterols in softgels (gelatin capsules with liquid center)
containing from 464 to 696 nanograms of stanol esters. The primary
analytes are sitostanol, campestanol, sitosterol and campesterol.
Stanol ester centers are washed from the gelatin shell and directly
saponified with alcoholic potassium hydroxide. Stanols and sterols
remain in the unsaponified fraction and are extracted with hexane. The
extracted stanols and sterols are then derivatized to trimethylsilyl
ethers and analyzed by gas chromatography. The internal standard
utilized is cholestanol.
The methods described above separate the major plant stanols in
food products from their sterol derivatives. The petitioner has
submitted data that show that these analytical methods are linear over
a specified range, accurate, precise and reproducible (Refs. 8, 11, and
13). Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry studies were used to confirm
the identity of the major stanols (Ref. 14). The data obtained from GC/
MS studies with the plant stanol ester raw material and with chemical
standards were compared with published spectra and confirmed the purity
and identity of the major stanols, sitostanol and campestanol. The
method has neither been subjected to validation through the AOAC's
collaborative study or peer-verified method validation procedures, nor
is it published in the open literature. FDA is requesting comments on
the suitability of the plant stanol ester petitioner's methods for
assuring that foods bearing the health claim contain the qualifying
levels of plant stanol esters. In this document, FDA is incorporating
the plant stanol ester petitioner's methods by reference in accordance
with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51. Copies of the methods may be
obtained from the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition's Office
of Nutritional Products, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements, Division of
Nutrition Science and Policy, 200 C St. SW., rm. 2831, Washington, DC
20204, or may be examined at the Center for Food Safety and Applied
Nutrition's Library, 200 C St. SW., rm. 3321, Washington, DC, and at
the Office of the Federal Register, 800 North Capital St. NW., suite
700, Washington, DC.
D. Nature of the Food Eligible to Bear the Claim
1. Eligible Types of Foods and Qualifying Level of Plant Sterol/Stanol
Esters Per Serving
a. Plant sterol esters. Section 101.83(c)(2)(iii)(A)(1) provides
that the types of foods eligible to bear the plant sterol esters and
risk of CHD health claim are spreads and dressings for salad. Section
101.83(c)(2)(iii)(A)(1) requires that any food bearing the health claim
contain at least 0.65 g of plant sterol esters per reference amount
customarily consumed (RACC) (i.e., per standardized serving). See
Sec. 101.12 for an explanation of how RACC's are determined and a list
of RACC's for commonly consumed foods. As discussed in section V.B of
this document, the daily dietary intake level of plant sterol esters
that has been associated with reduced risk of CHD is approximately 1.3
g or more per day.
The petitioner suggested that the qualifying level for foods to
bear a health claim be 1.6 g per RACC, the same as the target daily
intake level associated with reduced risk of CHD. The petitioner stated
that the RACC's for spreads and dressings for salad, 1 and 2
tablespoons (tbsp), respectively, are similar to the mean daily intakes
of spreads and dressings for salad identified in the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) 1994/96 Continuing Surveys of Food Intakes by
Individuals (Ref. 1, appendix G), which were 11.4 and 40 g/d,
respectively. The petitioner reasoned that the qualifying level per
RACC should be the same as the target daily intake level to assure that
people who consume only one serving a day of spread or dressings will
still be able to obtain the health benefits of the target daily intake
level.
Although FDA recognizes that, based on the plant sterol ester
petitioner's data, U.S. mean consumption for users of such products is
only one serving of spread or dressing for salad a day, the agency is
persuaded by the evidence from the studies supporting the claim that
the daily amount should be consumed in at least two servings eaten at
different times (see discussion of Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(i)(H) in section
V.B of this document).
The agency has generally made the assumption that a daily food
consumption pattern includes three meals and a snack (see 58 FR 2302 at
2379, January 6, 1993). Because of the wide variety of types of foods
that could contain qualifying levels of soy protein in the soy protein/
CHD health claim (Sec. 101.82) or soluble fiber in the soluble fiber/
CHD health claim (Sec. 101.81), the agency concluded that the
assumption of four servings/day of such foods was reasonable.
Therefore, the daily qualifying level for soluble fiber substances and
soy protein foods was based on consumption of four servings/day of such
products. In contrast, however, there is not a wide variety of foods
that contain plant sterol esters in significant quantities, and
therefore the agency believes that it would be difficult for many
consumers to eat four servings a day of such foods. The agency also has
concluded that a recommendation for four servings of plant sterol
ester-containing foods per day would not be an appropriate dietary
recommendation because such foods are necessarily fat-based.
FDA believes that a recommendation for plant sterol-containing
products to be consumed over two servings per day is reasonable in
light of the composition of these products (i.e., their fat content)
and the limited number of available products. Therefore, the agency is
requiring that a food bearing a health claim for plant sterol esters
and risk of CHD contain at least 0.65 g of plant sterol esters per
reference amount customarily consumed (1.3 g divided by two servings
per day). The agency is requesting comments on this decision.
The plant sterol ester petitioner requested that the claim be
permitted for spreads and dressings for salad. The petitioner did not
request authorization to use the health claim in the labeling of any
other type of conventional food nor in the labeling of dietary
supplements. The agency concluded in section II.B.3.a that the
petitioner satisfied the requirement of Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(ii) to
demonstrate that the use of plant sterol esters in spreads and
dressings for salad at the levels necessary to justify a claim is safe
and lawful. Furthermore, the petitioner submitted analytical methods
for measurement of plant sterol esters in spreads and dressings for
salad. Therefore, the agency is providing that the foods eligible to
bear the health claim are spreads and dressings for salad. If comments
on this interim final rule submit supporting data establishing that the
use of plant sterol esters in other food products is safe and lawful
and provide a validated analytical method that permits accurate
determination of the amount of plant
[[Page 54708]]
sterol esters in these foods, FDA will consider broadening the
categories of foods eligible to bear the claim in the final rule.
b. Plant stanol esters. Section 101.83(c)(2)(iii)(A)(2) provides
that the types of foods eligible to bear the plant stanol esters and
risk of CHD health claim are spreads, dressing for salad, snack bars,
and dietary supplements in softgel form. Section
101.83(c)(2)(iii)(A)(2) requires that any food bearing the health claim
contain at least 1.7 g of plant stanol esters per reference amount
customarily consumed. As discussed in section V.B of this document, the
daily dietary intake level of plant stanol esters that has been
associated with reduced risk of CHD is 3.4 g or more per day.
The plant stanol ester petitioner suggested that the qualifying
level for foods to bear a health claim be 0.85 g per RACC. The
petitioner explained that this level was derived by dividing the target
daily intake level of 3.4 g plant stanol esters by four daily servings.
As discussed in section V.B of this document, analysis of the
studies supporting the claim has persuaded FDA that the daily intake of
plant stanol esters should be consumed in at least two servings eaten
at different times. Moreover, as with plant sterol esters (see section
V.D.1.a of this document), FDA believes that two servings of plant
stanol esters per day is a more appropriate baseline than four. There
is not a wide variety of foods that contain plant stanol esters in
significant quantities, and therefore it would be difficult for many
consumers to eat four servings a day of such foods. The agency also has
concluded that a recommendation for four servings of plant sterol
ester-containing foods per day would not be an appropriate dietary
recommendation because such foods, like foods containing plant sterol
esters, are necessarily fat-based.
As with plant sterol esters, the agency believes that a
recommendation for the daily intake of plant stanol esters to be
consumed over two servings per day is reasonable in light of the
composition of products containing plant stanol esters (i.e., their fat
content) and the limited number of available products. Therefore, the
agency is requiring that a food bearing a health claim for plant stanol
esters and risk of CHD contain at least 1.7 g of plant stanol esters
per reference amount customarily consumed (3.4 g divided by two
servings per day). The agency is requesting comments on this decision.
The plant stanol ester petitioner requested that the claim be
authorized for use on conventional foods and dietary supplements. The
agency concluded in section II.B.3.b of this document that the
petitioner satisfied the requirement of Sec. 101.14(b)(3)(ii) to
demonstrate that the use of plant stanol esters in conventional foods
or dietary supplements at the levels necessary to justify the claim is
safe and lawful. The petitioner also submitted analytical methods for
measurement of plant stanol esters in spreads, dressings for salad,
snack bars, and dietary supplements in softgel (gelatin capsules with
liquid center) form; however, the petitioner did not submit an
analytical method suitable for measurement of plant stanol esters in
other foods. Without such a method, FDA would have no way to verify
that foods bearing the health claim contain the qualifying level of
plant stanol esters per RACC, and false claims could be made that would
mislead consumers. Therefore, the agency concludes that only foods for
which a suitable method is available should be authorized to bear the
health claim. Accordingly, FDA is providing that the foods eligible to
bear the health claim are spreads, dressings for salad, snack bars, and
dietary supplements in softgel form. If comments on this interim final
rule provide a validated analytical method that permits accurate
determination of the amount of plant stanol esters in other foods, FDA
will consider broadening the categories of foods eligible to bear the
claim in the final rule.
2. Fat Content Requirements
a. Low fat. In Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(iii)(B), the agency is requiring,
consistent with other authorized heart disease health claims, that
foods bearing the health claim meet the requirements for ``low
saturated fat'' and ``low cholesterol'' (see Sec. 101.62(c)(2) and
(d)(2) (21 CFR 101.62(c)(2) and (d)(2)). As discussed elsewhere in this
document and in the preamble to the final rule on fiber-containing
fruits, vegetables, and grain products and CHD (58 FR 2552 at 2573),
the scientific evidence linking diets low in saturated fat and
cholesterol to reduced risk of CHD is strong. Therefore, FDA has
consistently required foods that make claims about reducing the risk of
CHD to be low in saturated fat and cholesterol.
With few exceptions, as noted below, FDA has also required that
foods bearing the previously authorized CHD health claims meet the
requirements for ``low fat'' (see Sec. 101.62(b)(2)). In the dietary
lipid and CVD proposed rule, FDA proposed that in order for a food to
bear the health claim, the food must meet the requirements for a
``low'' claim relative to total fat content (56 FR 60727 at 60739). The
agency noted that, while total fat is not directly related to increased
risk for CHD, it may have significant indirect effects. The agency
mentioned that low fat diets facilitate reductions in the intake of
saturated fat and cholesterol to recommended levels. Furthermore, the
agency noted that obesity is a major risk factor for CHD, and dietary
fats, which have more than twice as many calories per gram as proteins
and carbohydrates, are major contributors to total calorie intakes. For
many adults, maintenance of desirable body weight is more readily
achieved with moderation of intake of total fat. The agency also
concluded that this approach would be most consistent with the U.S.
Dietary Guidelines, 4th edition (Ref. 107) and other dietary guidance
that recommended diets low in saturated fat, total fat, and
cholesterol. In the dietary saturated fat and cholesterol and CHD final
rule (58 FR 2739 at 2742), FDA required most foods bearing the claim to
meet the requirements for ``low fat,'' but allowed for the exception
that fish and game meats could instead meet the less demanding
requirements for ``extra lean,'' because these foods are appropriately
included in a diet low in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol. The
agency also waived the requirement for ``low fat'' on products
consisting of or derived from whole soybeans in the soy protein final
rule (64 FR 57700 at 57718), as long as those products contained no
additional fat not derived from the soybeans. FDA noted that products
derived from whole soybeans are useful sources of soy protein that,
like fish and game meats that are ``extra lean,'' can be appropriately
incorporated in a diet that is low in fat, saturated fat, and
cholesterol.
The recently distributed Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2000
(Ref. 103) modify the previous guideline for total fat intake. The new
guideline states, ``Choose a diet that is low in saturated fat and
cholesterol and moderate in total fat.'' This new guideline also
states, ``Some kinds of fat, especially saturated fats, increase the
risk for coronary heart disease by raising the blood cholesterol. In
contrast, unsaturated fats (found mainly in vegetable oils) do not
increase blood cholesterol.'' This modification in the dietary
guidelines, from the recommendation to choose a diet low in total fat
in the 4th edition of the U.S. Dietary Guidelines (Ref. 107) to the
recommendation to choose a diet moderate in total fat in the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans, 2000 (Ref. 103) is based on current
scientific
[[Page 54709]]
evidence of the role of diet in CHD, which does not support assigning
first priority to a diet low in total fat (Ref. 108). The agency's
reliance on dietary guidelines in this rulemaking and in previous
health claim regulations is based on provisions of the 1990 amendments
that direct FDA to issue health claim regulations that take into
account the role of the nutrients in food in a way that will enhance
the chances of consumers maintaining healthy dietary practices (see
section 403(r)(3)(A) and (r)(3)(B) of the act (21 U.S.C. 343(r)(3)(A)
and (r)(3)(B)), along with legislative history that mentions the role
of health claims in encouraging Americans to eat balanced, healthful
diets that meet federal government recommendations (Ref. 105).
The agency finds that not imposing a ``low fat'' requirement is
consistent with the emphasis in the new Dietary Guidelines for
Americans, 2000 (Ref. 103) on diets moderate in total fat. Inasmuch as
fats are currently the only technically feasible carriers of plant
sterol/stanol esters, requiring foods bearing the health claim to be
``low fat'' would greatly limit the number of foods that could use this
health claim. Such a requirement would lessen the public health
benefits of the rule. On the other hand, there are a number of foods,
such as spreads and dressings for salad, that can be formulated to
contain plant stanol or sterol esters while still qualifying as ``low
saturated fat'' and ``low cholesterol.'' Given the strength of the
evidence supporting the cholesterol-lowering effects of plant sterol/
stanol esters, the agency is requiring that foods bearing this health
claim meet the nutrient content requirements in Sec. 101.62 for ``low
saturated fat'' and ``low cholesterol,'' but not the requirements for
``low fat.''
b. Disqualifying levels. The plant sterol ester and plant stanol
ester petitioners requested an exception for certain food products from
the disqualifying nutrient level for total fat per 50 g of food in the
general health claim regulations (Sec. 101.14(a)(4)). The plant sterol
ester petitioner requested an exception for spreads and dressings for
salad, and the plant stanol ester petitioner requested an exception for
all foods with small serving sizes (less than or equal to 2 tbsp or 30
g per RACC). Section 403(r)(3)(A)(ii) of the act provides that a health
claim may only be made for a food that:
does not contain, as determined by the Secretary by regulation,
any nutrient in an amount which increases to persons in the general
population the risk of a disease or health-related condition which
is diet related, taking into account the significance of the food in
the total daily diet, except that the Secretary may by regulation
permit such a claim based on a finding that such a claim would
assist consumers in maintaining healthy dietary practices and based
on a requirement that the label contain a disclosure * * *.
Accordingly, if FDA finds that such a claim will assist consumers
in maintaining healthy dietary practices, the agency may issue a
regulation permitting the claim, provided that the regulation requires
the label of foods that bear the claim to identify the nutrient that
exceeds the disqualifying level. The general requirements for health
claims, Sec. 101.14(a)(4) and (e)(3), implement this provision of the
act. Section 101.14(a)(4) defines the disqualifying levels of total
fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, and sodium for different types of
foods. The disqualifying level for total fat is 13 g per RACC, per
labeled serving size, and, for foods with a RACC of 30 g or less or 2
tbsp or less (i.e., foods with a small serving size), per 50 g. All
three criteria apply; i.e., if a food with a small serving size
contains more than 13 g of total fat per 50 g, it is considered to
exceed the disqualifying level for total fat even if it contains less
than 13 g of total fat per RACC and per labeled serving size. Section
101.14(e)(3) provides that the nutrient content of foods that bear a
health claim must be within the disqualifying levels in
Sec. 101.14(a)(4), unless: (1) FDA has established alternative
disqualifying levels in the regulation authorizing the claim; or (2)
FDA has permitted the claim based on a finding that it will assist
consumers in maintaining healthy dietary practices, and the label of
foods bearing the claim bears the required disclosure statement about
the nutrient that exceeds the disqualifying level.
FDA first considered the plant sterol ester petitioner's request
for an exception limited to spreads and dressings for salad. As noted
above, foods with reference amounts of 30 g or 2 tbsp or less must
contain no more than 13 g of total fat per 50 g of food product to
avoid disqualification (Sec. 101.14(a)(4)). Reference amounts
customarily consumed for spreads and dressings for salad are 1 tbsp and
30 g, respectively. Many spreads and dressings for salad contain total
fat levels above the 13 g total fat per 50 g food disqualifying level.
Spreads and dressings for salad, however, are appropriate vehicles for
plant sterol/stanol esters because such substances are soluble in these
fat-based foods.
In the proposed rule entitled ``Food Labeling: Nutrient Content
Claims, General Principles; Health Claims, General Requirements and
Other Specific Requirements for Individual Health Claims'' (60 FR
66206, December 21, 1995; hereinafter the 1995 proposed rule), the
agency proposed four factors as being important to a decision as to
whether to grant an exception from a disqualifying level (60 FR 66206
at 66222). The agency applied these four factors in its consideration
of whether to grant an exception from the per 50 g disqualifying level
of total fat for spreads and dressings for salad.
The first factor is whether the disease that is the subject of the
petition is of such public health significance, and the role of the
diet so critical, that the use of a disqualifying level is not
appropriate. CHD is of the highest public health significance, and the
role of the diet is critical to reducing the risk of CHD. The National
Heart, Lung and Blood Institute in its report, ``Morbidity and
Mortality: 1998 Chartbook on Cardiovascular, Lung and Blood Diseases,''
published in 1998, estimated that the prevalence of CHD in the United
States was 12 million (Ref. 109). Furthermore, it was estimated that
2,130,000 hospitalizations and 9,941,000 visits to physicians' offices
were the result of CHD in the United States in 1995 (Ref. 109). CHD is
the leading cause of premature, permanent disability in the U.S. labor
force, accounting for 19 percent of disability allowances by the Social
Security Administration. CHD has a significant effect on U.S. health
care costs. For 1999, total direct costs related to CHD were estimated
at $53.1 billion and indirect costs from lost productivity associated
with morbidity (illness and disability) and mortality (premature
deaths) at $46.7 billion (Ref. 22). The agency notes that since plant
sterol/stanol esters have been shown to significantly reduce blood
cholesterol levels, and thereby help reduce the risk of CHD, an
exception from the disqualifying level appears appropriate when
considering the disease that is the subject of the claim.
The second factor is whether, absent an exception from the
disqualifying levels, the availability of foods that qualify for a
health claim would be adequate to address the public health concern
that is the subject of the health claim. If only a limited number of
food products qualify to bear the claim because of the disqualifying
levels, the agency would consider providing an exception. Without an
exception from the disqualifying level for total fat, all currently
marketed spreads and dressings for salad containing plant sterol/stanol
esters would be ineligible to bear the health claim, and the number
[[Page 54710]]
of foods eligible for this health claim would be limited to such an
extent that the public health value of the claim would be undermined.
The agency therefore concludes that the second factor also supports
granting an exception.
The third factor in the 1995 proposed rule was whether there is
``evidence that the population to which the health claim is targeted is
not at risk for the disease or health-related condition associated with
the disqualifying nutrient'' (60 FR 66206 at 66222). The agency stated
that the current disqualifying nutrients--total fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol and sodium--are associated with diseases or health-related
conditions that pose risks to the general population, but that there
may be some categories of foods that are targeted to specific
subpopulations that are not at particular risk for the disease or
health-related condition associated with the disqualifying nutrient
(toddlers, for example). Because the target population for this health
claim is the general population, not a specific subpopulation that is
not at risk for CHD, FDA concludes that the third factor does not weigh
in favor of granting an exception from the disqualifying levels for
total fat.
The final factor is whether there are any other public health
reasons for providing for disclosure of the total fat level rather than
disqualification. In this regard, the agency notes that the scientific
evidence indicates that plant sterol/stanol esters could contribute
significantly to reducing the risk of CHD in the United States. As
reviewed in section III.C of this document, a number of well controlled
randomized trials have found that plant sterol/stanol esters reduce
cholesterol levels in amounts that can be easily consumed by the
average adult when incorporated into spreads or dressings for salad.
The agency has determined that permitting the health claim on plant
sterol/stanol ester-containing spreads and dressings for salad will
help consumers develop a dietary approach that will result in
significantly lower cholesterol levels and an accompanying reduction in
the risk of heart disease.
Another public health reason for providing for disclosure of the
total fat level rather than disqualification concerns the change in
expert opinion on total fat intake, the risk of CHD, and general
health. Although diets high in saturated fat and cholesterol are
implicated in CHD, current scientific evidence does not indicate that
diets high in unsaturated fat are associated with CHD (Refs. 103 and
108). Furthermore, the 2000 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee
concluded that the scientific evidence on dietary fat and health
supports assigning first priority to reducing saturated fat and
cholesterol intake, not total fat intake (Ref. 108). In fact, the new
guideline for fat intake in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2000
(Ref. 103) states, ``Choose a diet that is low in saturated fat and
cholesterol and moderate in total fat.''
Based on the agency's analysis of the four factors identified in
the 1995 proposed rule (60 FR 66206 at 66222) and consistent with the
new Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2000 (Ref. 103), the agency has
determined that, despite the fact that spreads and dressings for salad
that contain plant stanol/sterol esters may also contain a
disqualifying level of total fat per 50 g, a health claim for plant
sterol/stanol esters on such foods will assist consumers in maintaining
healthy dietary practices. Therefore, the agency is providing in
Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(iii)(C) a limited exception to the per 50 g
disqualifying nutrient level for total fat in Sec. 101.14(a)(4) for
spreads and dressings for salad that contain plant sterol/stanol
esters. The agency is requesting comment on this decision. All foods
bearing the health claim for plant sterol/stanol esters and risk of CHD
must, however, meet the requirements for ``low saturated fat'' and
``low cholesterol'' (see Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(iii)(B)). Likewise, all
foods bearing the claim must meet the 13 g limit for total fat per RACC
and per labeled serving size.
In accordance with Sec. 101.14(e)(3), FDA is also providing that
spreads and dressings for salad that take advantage of the exception to
the disqualifying level must bear a disclosure statement that complies
with Sec. 101.13(h) (21 CFR 101.13(h)). This statement must identify
the disqualifying nutrient and refer the consumer to more information
about the nutrient, as follows: ``See nutrition information for fat
content.'' This statement must be included on the label of spreads and
dressings for salad that bear a health claim for plant sterol/stanol
esters and risk of CHD and that contain more than 13 g of total fat per
50 g of product. Requirements for the format and placement of the
disclosure statement are found in Sec. 101.13(h)(4).
FDA considered the plant stanol ester petitioner's request that the
exception to the disqualifying level for total fat per 50 g apply to
all foods with small serving sizes. The agency has decided not to grant
this request. There is a wide variety of foods that are consumed in
small serving sizes, and the agency is not aware of any public health
rationale that would justify applying the exception to all possible
foods that are consumed in small serving sizes. Nor did the plant
stanol ester petitioner provide such a rationale. The petitioner first
argued generally that the benefits of cholesterol reduction through
consumption of plant stanol esters would outweigh any negative dietary
consequences of consuming foods that would not qualify for the health
claim absent an exception from the disqualifying level for total fat
(Ref. 8, page 25). The petitioner then argued more specifically that
foods containing plant stanol esters replace other fat-containing foods
in the diet (Ref. 8, page 25): ``Benecol foods are promoted as foods to
be used in place of other similar foods. In the case of spreads, for
example, Benecol spreads can be used as an alternative to butter,
margarine or other spreads and, therefore, will not increase the
overall level of fat in the diet while providing the cholesterol-
lowering benefits of plant stanol esters.''
This rationale would not apply to all foods with small serving
sizes, however, because not all such foods are used in place of other
foods. This rationale provided by the petitioner applies to spreads and
dressings for salad, but not necessarily to other foods with small
serving sizes. FDA also does not agree that the health benefits of
plant stanol esters outweigh the negative consequences of consuming
high fat foods to such an extent that an unlimited exception to the
disqualifying level for total fat should be permitted for all foods
with small serving sizes. The agency further concludes that such a
broad exception is not necessary because the availability of spreads
and dressings for salad that qualify for the health claim will be
sufficient so that consumers will be able to eat a sufficient quantity
of plant sterol/stanol esters to receive the cholesterol-lowering
benefits those substances provide. It is also likely that there are
other types of foods that can be formulated to fall within the limits
for total fat in Sec. 101.14(a)(4).
Despite FDA's reluctance to grant broad exceptions to the
disqualifying levels, the agency is willing to consider additional
exceptions on a limited, case-by-case basis. Manufacturers of products
other than spreads and dressings for salad that exceed the
disqualifying level of total fat may submit comments with supporting
information or petition the agency for an exception from
disqualification in accordance with Sec. 101.14(e)(3) if they wish to
make the health claim that is the subject of this interim final rule.
[[Page 54711]]
3. Minimum Nutrient Contribution Requirement
The plant sterol ester and plant stanol ester petitioners requested
an exception for certain food products containing plant sterol/stanol
esters from the minimum nutrient contribution requirement in the
general health claim regulations (Sec. 101.14(e)(6)). The plant sterol
ester petitioner requested an exception for dressings for salad, and
the plant stanol ester petitioner requested a general exception for all
foods. Section 101.14(e)(6) specifies that conventional foods bearing a
health claim must contain 10 percent or more of the Reference Daily
Intake or the Daily Reference Value for vitamin A, vitamin C, iron,
calcium, protein, or fiber per reference amount customarily consumed
before any nutrient addition, except as otherwise provided in
individual regulations authorizing particular health claims. Dietary
supplements are not subject to this requirement. As explained in the
1993 health claims final rule (58 FR 2478), FDA concluded that such a
requirement is necessary to ensure that the value of health claims will
not be trivialized or compromised by their use on foods of little or no
nutritional value (58 FR 2478 at 2521). FDA adopted this requirement in
response to Congress' intent that health claims be used to help
Americans maintain a balanced and healthful diet (Ref. 105) (58 FR 2478
at 2489 and 2521).
The agency concludes that, with respect to dressings for salad, the
minimum nutrient content requirements of Sec. 101.14(e)(6), while
important, are outweighed by the public health importance of
communicating the cholesterol-lowering benefits from consumption of
plant sterol/stanol esters. The agency believes that the value of
health claims will not be trivialized or compromised by their use on
dressings for salad because dressings for salad often are consumed with
foods rich in nutrients and fiber. Salads, for example, are usually
rich in vegetables that provide important nutrients at significant
levels, e.g., tomatoes--vitamins A and C; carrots--vitamin A; spinach--
vitamin A and calcium.
In recognition of the usefulness of plant sterol/stanol esters in
reducing blood cholesterol and the nutritional value of salad, FDA has
determined that there is sufficient public health evidence to support
providing an exception from Sec. 101.14(e)(6) for plant sterol/stanol
ester-containing dressings for salad. However, the agency has decided
not to grant the plant stanol ester petitioner's request for a general
exception from the minimum nutrient content requirement. The basis for
the plant stanol ester petitioner's request for such an exception is
that the cholesterol-lowering benefits of plant stanol ester-containing
foods do not depend upon the presence of 10 percent or more of the
Reference Daily Intake or the Daily Reference Value for vitamin A,
vitamin C, iron, calcium, protein, or fiber. The agency, however,
concludes that this rationale is not sufficient to justify an exception
for all possible foods that would require an exception from the minimum
nutrient contribution requirement in order to use the health claim. FDA
believes that case-by-case consideration of the justification for an
exception is necessary to ensure that the goals of the minimum nutrient
contribution requirement are not undermined.
Accordingly, in Sec. 101.83(c)(2)(iii)(D), the agency is providing
that dressings for salad bearing the health claim are excepted from the
minimum nutrient requirement of Sec. 101.14(e)(6), but that other foods
must comply with this requirement to be eligible to bear a health claim
about plant sterol/stanol esters and the risk of CHD. The agency is
requesting comment on this decision.
Manufacturers of foods that do not meet the minimum nutrient
contribution requirement may submit comments with supporting
information or petition the agency to request an exception from this
requirement if they wish to use the health claim that is the subject of
this interim final rule.
E. Optional Information
FDA is providing in Sec. 101.83(d)(1) that the claim may state that
the development of heart disease depends on many factors and,
consistent with other authorized CHD health claims, may list the risk
factors for heart disease. The risk factors are those currently listed
in Secs. 101.75(d)(1), 101.77(d)(1), 101.81(d)(1), and 101.82(d)(1).
The claim may also provide additional information about the benefits of
exercise and management of body weight to help lower the risk of heart
disease.
In Sec. 101.83(d)(2), consistent with Secs. 101.75(d)(2),
101.77(d)(2), 101.81(d)(2), and 101.82(d)(2), FDA is providing that the
claim may state that the relationship between diets that include plant
sterol/stanol esters and reduced risk of heart disease is through the
intermediate link of ``blood cholesterol'' or ``blood total
cholesterol'' and ``LDL cholesterol.'' The relationship between plant
sterol/stanol esters and reduced blood total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol is supported by the scientific evidence summarized in this
interim final rule.
In Sec. 101.83(d)(3), the agency is providing that, consistent with
Secs. 101.75(d)(3), 101.77(d)(3), 101.81(d)(3), and 101.82(d)(3), the
claim may include information from Sec. 101.83(a) and (b). These
paragraphs summarize information about the relationship between diets
that include plant sterol/stanol esters and the risk of CHD and about
the significance of that relationship. This information helps to convey
the seriousness of CHD and the role that a diet that includes plant
sterol/stanol esters can play to help reduce the risk of CHD.
In Sec. 101.83(d)(4), the agency is providing that the claim may
include information on the relationship between saturated fat and
cholesterol in the diet and the risk of CHD. This information helps to
convey the importance of keeping saturated fat and cholesterol intake
low to reduce the risk of CHD.
In Sec. 101.83(d)(5), the agency is providing that the claim may
state that diets that include plant sterol/stanol esters and are low in
saturated fat and cholesterol are part of a dietary pattern that is
consistent with current dietary guidelines for Americans.
In Sec. 101.83(d)(6), the agency is providing that the claim may
state that individuals with elevated blood total and LDL cholesterol
should consult their physicians for medical advice and treatment. If
the claim defines high or normal blood total and LDL cholesterol
levels, then the claim shall state that individuals with high blood
cholesterol should consult their physicians for medical advice and
treatment.
In Sec. 101.83(d)(7), the agency is providing that the claim may
include information on the number of people in the United States who
have heart disease. The sources of this information shall be
identified, and it shall be current information from the National
Center for Health Statistics, the National Institutes of Health, or
``Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2000,''
USDA and Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), Government
Printing Office (GPO) (Ref. 103).
The optional information provided in Sec. 101.83(d)(4) through
(d)(7) is consistent with optional information set forth in
Secs. 101.75, 101.77, 101.81, and 101.82. The intent of this
information is to help consumers understand the seriousness of CHD in
the United States and the role of diets that include plant sterol/
stanol esters and are low in saturated fat and cholesterol in reducing
the risk of CHD.
[[Page 54712]]
F. Model Health Claims
In Sec. 101.83(e), FDA is providing model health claims to
illustrate the requirements of Sec. 101.83. FDA emphasizes that these
model health claims are illustrative only. These model claims
illustrate the required, and some of the optional, elements of the
interim final rule. Because the agency is authorizing a claim about the
relationship between plant sterol/stanol esters and CHD, not approving
specific claim wording, manufacturers will be free to design their own
claim so long as it is consistent with Sec. 101.83(c) and (d).
In Sec. 101.83(e)(1)(i) and (e)(1)(ii), the model claims illustrate
all of the required elements of the health claim for plant sterol
esters. The first claim states, ``Foods containing at least 0.65 grams
per serving of plant sterol esters, eaten twice a day with meals for a
daily total intake of at least 1.3 grams, as part of a diet low in
saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A
serving of [name of the food] supplies grams of vegetable oil sterol
esters.'' The second claim states, ``Diets low in saturated fat and
cholesterol that include two servings of foods that provide a daily
total of at least 1.3 grams of vegetable oil sterol esters in two meals
may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of [name of the food]
supplies grams of vegetable oil sterol esters.''
In Sec. 101.83(e)(2)(i) and (e)(2)(ii), the model claims illustrate
all of the required elements of the health claim for plant stanol
esters. The first claim states, ``Foods containing at least 1.7 grams
per serving of plant stanol esters, eaten twice a day with meals for a
total daily intake of at least 3.4 grams, as part of a diet low in
saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A
serving of [name of the food] supplies grams of plant stanol esters.''
The second claim states, ``Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol
that include two servings of foods that provide a daily total of at
least 3.4 grams of vegetable oil stanol esters in two meals may reduce
the risk of heart disease. A serving of [name of the food supplies
grams of vegetable oil stanol esters.''
The plant stanol ester petitioner proposed three model health
claims that included the following statements, respectively: ``5 g of
plant stanol esters per day is more effective in reducing cholesterol
and may further reduce the risk of heart disease,'' ``5 g plant stanol
esters may be more beneficial in reducing the risk of heart disease,''
and ``5 g plant stanol esters per day has been shown to further lower
LDL (bad) cholesterol and may further reduce the risk of heart
disease.'' The agency reviewed the scientific evidence to determine
whether the data supported these statements, starting with four studies
(Refs. 88 through 90, and 94) that reported the blood cholesterol-
lowering effects from two or more consumption levels of plant stanol
esters.
Hallikainen et al. (Ref. 88) conducted a single-blind, crossover
study in which 22 hypercholesterolemic subjects consumed margarine
containing four different doses of plant stanol esters, including 1.4,
2.7, 4.1, and 5.4 g/d (0.8, 1.6, 2.4, and 3.2 g/d of free plant
stanols), for 4 weeks each. These test margarine phases were compared
to a control margarine phase, also 4 weeks long. Serum total
cholesterol concentration decreased (calculated in reference to
control) by 2.8 percent (p=0.384), 6.8 percent (p 0.001), 10.3 percent
(p0.001) and 11.3 percent (p 0.001) by doses from 1.4 to 5.4 g plant
stanol esters. The respective decreases for LDL cholesterol were 1.7
percent (p=0.892), 5.6 percent ( 0.05), 9.7 percent (p0.001) and 10.4
percent (p0.001). Although serum total and LDL cholesterol decreases
were numerically greater with the 4.1 and 5.4 g doses than with the 2.7
g dose, these differences were not statistically significant (p=0.054-
0.516).
Nguyen et al. (Ref. 90) examined the blood cholesterol-lowering
effects in subjects consuming either a U.S.-reformulated spread
containing 5.1 g/d plant stanol esters (3 g/d free plant stanols), a
U.S.-reformulated spread containing 3.4 g per d plant stanol esters (2
g/d of free plant stanols), or a U.S.-reformulated spread without plant
stanol esters for 8 weeks. Serum total cholesterol (p 0.001) and LDL
cholesterol (p 0.02) levels were significantly reduced in the 5.1 and
3.4 g/d plant stanol ester groups compared with the placebo group. The
U.S. spread containing 5.1 g/d plant stanol esters lowered serum total
and LDL cholesterol by 6.4 and 10.1 percent, respectively, when
compared to baseline (p 0.001). The 3.4 g/d plant stanol ester U.S.
spread group showed a 4.1 percent reduction in both serum total and LDL
cholesterol levels compared to baselinese 105 (p 0.001). The reduction
in the LDL cholesterol level was found to be significantly greater in
the 5.1 g/d plant stanol ester group compared to the 3.4 g/d plant
stanol ester group (p 0.001). The authors did not report a statistical
analysis comparing serum total cholesterol concentrations between the
two consumption levels of plant stanol esters.
Miettinen et al. (Ref. 89) instructed 153 mildly
hypercholesterolemic subjects to consume 24 g/d of canola oil margarine
or the same margarine with added plant stanol esters for a targeted
consumption of 5.1 g/d plant stanol esters (3 g/d free plant stanols),
without other dietary changes. At the end of 6 months, those consuming
plant stanol esters were randomly assigned either to continue the test
margarine with a targeted intake of 5.1 g/d plant stanol esters or to
switch to a targeted intake of 3.4 g/d plant stanol esters (2 g/d free
plant stanols) for an additional 6 months. Based on measured margarine
consumption, average plant stanol ester intakes were 4.4 g/d (in the
5.1 g/d target group) and 3.1 g/d (in the 3.4 g/d target group).
Significant reductions in serum total and LDL cholesterol were reported
after consuming 4.4 or 3.1 g/d of plant stanol esters compared to the
control group (p 0.01). Moreover, a statistically significant
difference was observed between the 6th and 12th months in the serum
total cholesterol (p= 0.047) and LDL cholesterol (p= 0.017) curves
between the 4.4 and 3.1 g/d plant stanol ester groups, representing a
greater serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol reduction in the
4.4 g/d plant stanol ester group compared to the 3.1 g/d plant stanol
ester group. The authors state, however, ``Despite the finding that the
decreasing trends between the 6th and 12th months in the total and LDL
cholesterol concentrations in the group consuming 2.6 g of sitostanol
were slightly different from the increasing trends in the group
consuming 1.8 g, for practical purposes the two doses produced similar
cholesterol-lowering effects.''
Vanhanen et al. (Ref. 94) reported the hypocholesterolemic effects
of 1.36 g/d of plant stanol esters (800 mg/d of free plant stanols) RSO
mayonnaise for 9 weeks followed by 6 weeks of consumption of 3.4 g/d of
plant stanol esters (2 g/d of free plant stanols) in RSO mayonnaise
compared to a group receiving RSO mayonnaise alone. After 9 weeks of
consumption of the lower dose (1.36 g/d) plant stanol ester mayonnaise,
the changes in serum levels of total and LDL cholesterol were -4.1
percent (p 0.05) and -10.3 percent (not statistically significant),
respectively, as compared to the control. Greater reductions in both
serum total and LDL cholesterol were observed after consumption of 3.4
g/d of plant stanol esters for an additional 6 weeks (p 0.05). The
changes in serum levels of total and LDL cholesterol were -9.3 percent
and -15.2 percent,
[[Page 54713]]
respectively, for subjects consuming 3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters as
compared to control. These investigators commented:
[T]he reductions in the serum cholesterol level by SaE
[sitostanol ester] were dose-dependent, indicating that the low
dose, less than 1 g of sitostanol/day, reduced LDL-cholesterol
insufficiently (8.5%). Accordingly, the higher dose, about 2 g/d,
appears to be large enough for a reasonable (about 15%) lowering of
serum LDL cholesterol. Preliminary studies with even higher doses, 3
g/d, does not appear to increase the cholesterol-lowering effect,
even though cholesterol absorption efficiency decreases by almost
two-thirds in men with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus at
least * * *.
In only one (Ref. 90) of the four studies (Refs. 88 through 90, and
94) described above did the investigators report a statistically
significant greater reduction in blood total and LDL cholesterol from
consumption of 5 g or more of plant stanol ester compared to a lower
consumption level of plant stanol ester. Another study (Ref. 88) found
no statistically significant difference between the cholesterol-
lowering effects of 5.4 g/d plant stanol esters and two lower intake
levels (2.7 and 4.1 g/d). The remaining two studies (Refs. 89 and 94)
involved maximum intakes of less than 5 g/d, but in both studies the
authors expressed the opinion that higher intakes did not appear to
increase the cholesterol-lowering effect for practical purposes. In
addition to these multiple-dose studies, FDA reviewed six single-dose
studies (Refs. 67, 77, 78, 81 and 82 (1 study), 91, and 92) that
reported statistically significant blood cholesterol-lowering effects
from daily intake levels greater than 3.4 g/d of plant stanol esters.
The agency compared these studies to the studies that found
statistically significant blood cholesterol-lowering effects at intakes
of plant stanol esters at or close to the 3.4 g/d level. Considering
all the studies described above that reported the cholesterol-lowering
effectiveness of total daily intake levels greater than 3.4 g/d of
plant stanol esters (Refs. 67, 77, 78, 81 and 82 (1 study), 88 through
92, and 94), the blood cholesterol-lowering effect for total
cholesterol ranged from 7.1 percent from 5.8 g/d of plant stanol esters
(Refs. 81 and 82 (1 study)) to 11.3 percent from 5.4 g/d of plant
stanol esters (Ref. 88), and for LDL cholesterol the range was from 7.5
percent from 5.8 g/d of plant stanol esters (Refs. 81 and 82 (1 study))
to 15 percent from 4.4 g/d of plant stanol esters (Ref. 89). These
cholesterol-lowering results are similar to those observed in studies
that utilized a daily total intake at or close to 3.4 g/d of plant
stanol esters (Refs. 58, 80, 89, 90, and 94). In these lower daily
intake studies, the blood total cholesterol reduction ranged from 9.3
percent (Ref. 94) to 12 percent (Ref. 80) for 3.4 g/d of plant stanol
esters. Similarly, for LDL cholesterol the reductions associated with
these lower daily intake levels ranged from 6.4 percent for 3.31 g/d of
plant stanol esters (Ref. 58) to 15 percent for 3.4 g/d of plant stanol
esters (Refs. 80 and 94). Thus, comparison of the blood cholesterol-
lowering ranges between the higher and the lower daily intake levels of
plant stanol esters suggests that there is no increased benefit from
daily intake levels greater than 3.4 g/d.
Furthermore, the results of a research synthesis analysis (Ref.
100) suggest that intakes greater than about 3.4 g/d of plant stanol
esters (2 g/d of plant stanol) would not result in further reduction in
LDL cholesterol. This analysis found that a continuous dose response
exists up to the 3.4 g/d level, but at higher daily intake levels of
plant stanol esters, no further reduction in LDL cholesterol was
apparent. Another recent analysis of the dose responsiveness to plant
stanol esters, using a compilation of data from published studies,
indicates a curvilinear dose response for both blood total and LDL
cholesterol, with a clear leveling-off at an intake of about 3.74 g/d
plant stanol esters (2.2 g/d free plant stanols) (Ref. 110).
The agency therefore concludes that the weight of the evidence does
not support the comparative claims requested by the plant stanol esters
petitioner and that such claims would be misleading to consumers.
Therefore, FDA is not including the petitioner's requested comparative
claims in the model health claims in Sec. 101.83 and is not authorizing
the plant sterol/stanol esters and risk of CHD health claim to include
any statements claiming that 5 g per day of plant stanol esters is more
effective than 3.4 g per day of plant stanol esters in reducing blood
total or LDL cholesterol or in reducing the risk of heart disease.
VI. Issuance of an Interim Final Rule, Immediate Effective Date,
and Opportunity for Public Comment
FDA is issuing this rule as an interim final rule, effective
immediately, with an opportunity for public comment. Section 403(r)(7)
of the act authorizes FDA (by delegation from the Secretary of Health
and Human Services (the Secretary)) to make proposed regulations issued
under section 403(r) of the act effective upon publication pending
consideration of public comment and publication of a final regulation,
if the agency determines that such action is necessary for public
health reasons. This authority enables the Secretary to act promptly on
petitions that provide information that is necessary to: (1) Enable
consumers to develop and maintain healthy dietary practices, (2) enable
consumers to be informed promptly and effectively of important new
knowledge regarding nutritional and health benefits of food, or (3)
ensure that scientifically sound nutritional and health information is
provided to consumers as soon as possible. Proposed regulations made
effective upon publication under this authority are deemed to be final
agency action for purposes of judicial review. The legislative history
indicates that such regulations should be issued as interim final rules
(H. Conf. Rept. No. 105-399, at 98 (1997)).
Both the plant sterol ester petitioner and the plant stanol ester
petitioner have submitted requests for the agency to consider making
any proposed regulation on the petitioned health claims effective upon
publication in an interim final rule (Refs. 6 and 16).
The plant stanol ester petitioner's request states that all three
of the criteria in section 403(r)(7)(A) of the act are met:
As the petition makes clear, regular consumption of plant stanol
esters as part of a healthy dietary pattern provides substantial
health benefits. The health claim will, for the first time, provide
consumers with important health information on the package label
regarding the role of plant stanol esters in lowering cholesterol
and reducing the risk of heart disease--information which should be
made available to consumers at the earliest possible time. The
health claim will provide consumers with scientifically sound
information on the nutritional and health benefits of foods
containing plant stanol ester, and will enable consumers to develop
and maintain healthy dietary practices that include the
incorporation of plant stanol esters into their diets.
The plant sterol ester petitioner's request also states that all
three of the criteria in section 403(r)(7)(A) of the act are met, and
its rationale for meeting the criteria is similar to that of the plant
stanol ester petitioner. The plant sterol ester petitioner also points
out that if firms are required to wait until publication of a final
rule to use the petitioned health claim, consumers will likely not read
it on labeling until May 2001 or later. The petitioner further states,
if FDA permits the claim to be used upon publication of the proposed
rule, however, the claim could appear on labeling almost a year
earlier, providing a significant period of time during which consumers
could
[[Page 54714]]
effectively use the information to make healthier dietary choices.
The agency has considered the requests to make any proposed rule
for plant sterol/stanol esters and CHD effective upon publication and
concurs that the standard in section 403(r)(7)(A) of the act is met.
The agency agrees with the plant sterol ester and plant stanol ester
petitioners that authorizing the health claim immediately will help
consumers develop and maintain healthy dietary practices. As discussed
above, FDA has concluded that there is significant scientific agreement
that plant sterol/stanol esters reduce blood total and LDL cholesterol
levels. The reported reductions in blood total and LDL cholesterol
levels are significant and may have a profound impact on population
risk of CHD if consumption of plant stanol esters becomes widespread.
The agency has determined that issuance of an interim final rule is
necessary to enable consumers to be informed promptly and effectively
of this important new knowledge regarding the nutritional and health
benefits of plant sterol/stanol esters. The agency has also determined
that issuance of an interim final rule is necessary to ensure that
scientifically sound nutritional and health information is provided to
consumers as soon as possible.
FDA invites public comment on this interim final rule. The agency
will consider modifications to this interim final rule based on
comments made during the comment period. Interested persons may submit
to the Dockets Management Branch (address above) written comments
regarding this interim final rule by November 22, 2000. Two copies of
any comments are to be submitted, except that individuals may submit
one copy. Comments are to be identified with the docket number found in
brackets in the heading of this document. Received comments may be seen
in the Dockets Management Branch between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., Monday
through Friday.
These regulations are effective September 8, 2000. The agency will
address comments and confirm or amend the interim rule in a final rule.
VII. Environmental Impact
The agency has determined under 21 CFR 25.30(k) that this action is
of a type that does not individually or cumulatively have a significant
effect on the human environment. Therefore, neither an environmental
assessment nor an environmental impact statement is required.
VIII. Analysis of Economic Impacts
A. Benefit-Cost Analysis
FDA has examined the economic implications of this interim final
rule as required by Executive Order 12866. Executive Order 12866
directs agencies to assess all costs and benefits of available
regulatory alternatives and, when regulation is necessary, to select
regulatory approaches that maximize net benefits (including potential
economic, environmental, public health and safety, and other
advantages; distributive impacts; and equity). Executive Order 12866
classifies a rule as significant if it meets any one of a number of
specified conditions, including having an annual effect on the economy
of $100 million or adversely affecting in a material way a sector of
the economy, competition, or jobs. A regulation is also considered a
significant regulatory action if it raises novel legal or policy
issues. FDA has determined that this interim final rule is not a
significant regulatory action as defined by Executive Order 12866.
The authorization of health claims about the relationship between
plant sterol/stanol esters and coronary heart disease leads to costs
and benefits only to those food manufacturers who choose to use the
claim. This interim final rule would not require that any labels be
redesigned or that any products be reformulated. Therefore, this rule
will not generate any direct compliance costs. No firm will choose to
bear the cost of redesigning labels unless it believes that the claim
will lead to increased sales of its product sufficient to justify that
cost. The benefit of this rule is to provide new information in the
market regarding the relationship between plant sterol/stanol esters
and the risk of coronary heart disease. FDA authorization for this
health claim will provide consumers with the assurance that this
information is truthful, not misleading, and scientifically valid.
B. Small Entity Analysis
FDA has examined the economic implications of this interim final
rule as required by the Regulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 601-612).
If a rule has a significant economic impact on a substantial number of
small entities, the Regulatory Flexibility Act requires the agency to
analyze regulatory options that would minimize the economic impact of
the rule on small entities.
As previously explained, this interim final rule will not generate
any direct compliance costs. Small businesses will incur costs only if
they choose to take advantage of the marketing opportunity presented by
this interim final rule. No small entity, however, will choose to bear
the cost of redesigning labels unless it believes that the claim will
lead to increased sales of its product sufficient to justify those
costs.
Accordingly, FDA certifies that this interim final rule will not
have a significant economic impact on a substantial number of small
entities. Therefore, under the Regulatory Flexibility Act, no further
analysis is required.
C. Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995
Title II of the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 (Public Law
104-4) requires cost-benefit and other analyses before any rulemaking
if the rule would include a ``Federal mandate that may result in the
expenditure by State, local, and tribal governments, in the aggregate,
or by the private sector, of $100,000,000 or more (adjusted annually
for inflation) in any 1 year.'' FDA has determined that this interim
final rule does not constitute a significant regulatory action under
the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act.
IX. Paperwork Reduction Act
FDA concludes that the labeling provisions of this interim final
rule are not subject to review by the Office of Management and Budget
because they do not constitute a ``collection of information'' under
the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3501-3520). Rather, the
food labeling health claim on the association between plant sterol/
stanol esters and coronary heart disease is a ``public disclosure of
information originally supplied by the Federal government to the
recipient for the purpose of disclosure to the public'' (5 CFR
1320.3(c)(2)).
X. Federalism
FDA has analyzed this interim final rule in accordance with the
principles set forth in Executive Order 13132. FDA has determined that
the rule does not contain policies that have substantial direct effects
on the states, on the relationship between the National Government and
the States, or on the distribution of power and responsibilities among
the various levels of government. Accordingly, the agency has concluded
that the interim final rule does not contain policies that have
federalism implications as defined in the order and consequently, a
federalism summary impact statement is not required.
XI. References
The following references have been placed on display in the Dockets
[[Page 54715]]
Management Branch (address above) and may be seen by interested persons
between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., Monday through Friday.
1. Lipton, ``Petition for Health Claim--Vegetable Oil Sterol
Esters and Coronary Heart Disease,'' Item CP1, Docket 00P-1275,
Dockets Management Branch, February 1, 2000.
2. Letter from Daniel R. Dwyer, Kleinfeld, Kaplan and Becker, to
Sharon A. Ross, FDA, Item MT1, Docket 00P-1275, Dockets Management
Branch, March 31, 2000.
3. Letter from Daniel R. Dwyer, Kleinfeld, Kaplan and Becker, to
Sharon A. Ross, FDA, Item MT2, Docket 00P-1275, Dockets Management
Branch, May 3, 2000.
4. Letter from Daniel R. Dwyer, Kleinfeld, Kaplan and Becker, to
Lynn A. Larsen, FDA, June 30, 2000.
5. Letter from Lynn A. Larsen, FDA, to Nancy Schnell, Lipton,
May 11, 2000.
6. Letter from Daniel R. Dwyer, Kleinfeld, Kaplan and Becker, to
Lynn A. Larsen, FDA, June 26, 2000.
7. Letter from Nancy L. Schnell, Lipton, to Christine J. Lewis,
FDA, August 2, 2000.
8. McNeil Consumer Healthcare, ``Petition for Health Claim--
Plant Stanol Esters and Coronary Heart Disease,'' Item CP1, Docket
00P-1276, Dockets Management Branch, February 15, 2000.
9. Letter from G. A. Leveille, McNeil Consumer Healthcare, to
Sharon Ross, FDA, Item MM2, Docket 00P-1276, Dockets Management
Branch, February 28, 2000.
10. Letter from Gilbert A. Leveille, McNeil Consumer Healthcare,
to Sharon Ross, FDA, Item MM3, Docket 00P-1276, Dockets Management
Branch, March 21, 2000.
11. Letter from Gilbert A. Leveille, McNeil Consumer Healthcare,
to Sharon Ross, FDA, Item MM4, Docket 00P-1276, Dockets Management
Branch, April 3, 2000.
12. Letter from Gilbert A. Leveille, McNeil Consumer Healthcare,
to Sharon Ross, FDA, Item MM5, Docket 00P-1276, Dockets Management
Branch, May 1, 2000.
13. Letter from Gilbert A. Leveille, McNeil Consumer Healthcare,
to Sharon A. Ross, FDA, June 23, 2000.
14. Letter from Gilbert A. Leveille, McNeil Consumer Healthcare,
to Lynn Larsen, FDA, July 18, 2000.
15. Letter from Lynn A. Larsen, FDA, to Dr. Gilbert A. Leveille,
McNeil Consumer Healthcare, May 25, 2000.
16. Letter from Mark A. Sievers, Johnson & Johnson (parent
company to McNeil Consumer Healthcare), to Lynn A. Larsen, FDA, June
14, 2000.
17. Letter from Gilbert A. Leveille, McNeil Consumer Healthcare,
to Lynn Larsen, FDA, July 17, 2000.
18. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, The Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and Health,
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988, pp. 83-137.
19. Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences, Diet
and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk,
Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1989, pp. 291-309 and 529-
547.
20. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, and National Institutes of Health, National Cholesterol
Education Program: Population Panel Report, NIH Publication No. 90-
3046, Bethesda, MD, November 1990, pp. 1-40.
21. Sempos, C. T., J. I. Cleeman, M. D. Carroll, C. L. Johnson,
P. S. Bachorik, D. J. Gordon, V. L. Burt, R. R. Briefel, C. D.
Brown, K. Lippel, and B. M. Rifkind, ``Prevalence of High Blood
Cholesterol Among U.S. Adults. An Update Based on Guidelines From
the Second Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program
Adult Treatment Panel,'' Journal of the American Medical
Association, vol. 269, pp. 3009-3014, 1993.
22. American Heart Association, 1999 Heart and Stroke
Statistical Update, Dallas, TX: American Heart Association, 1998.
23. Weihrauch, J. L., and J. M. Gardner, ``Sterol Content of
Foods of Plant Origin,'' Journal of the American Dietetic
Association, vol. 73, pp. 39-47, 1978.
24. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Service, ``USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release
12,'' Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page (www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp), 1998.
25. Nair, P. P., N. Turjman, G. Kessie, B. Calkins, G. T.
Goodman, H. Davidovitz, and G. Nimmagadda, ``Diet, Nutrition Intake,
and Metabolism in Populations at High and Low Risk for Colon Cancer.
Dietary Cholesterol, Beta-Sitosterol, and Stigmasterol,'' American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 440, pp. 927-930, 1984.
26. Morton, G. M., S. M. Lee, D. H. Buss, and P. Lawrence,
``Intakes and Major Dietary Sources of Cholesterol and Phytosterols
in the British Diet,'' Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics,
vol. 8, pp. 429-440, 1995.
27. Miettinen, T. A., and A. Tarpila, ``Fecal Beta-sitosterol in
Patients with Diverticular Disease of the Colon and in
Vegetarians,'' Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 13,
pp. 573-576, 1978.
28. Hirai K., C. Shimazu, R. Takezoe, and Y. Ozek,
``Cholesterol, Phytosterol and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Levels in
1982 and 1957 Japanese Diets,'' Journal of Nutritional Science and
Vitaminology, vol. 32, pp. 363-372, 1986.
29. deVries, J. H. M., A. Jansen, D. Kromhout, P. van de
Bovenkamp, W. A. van Staveren, R. P. Mensink, and M. D. Katan, ``The
Fatty Acid and Sterol Content of Food Composites of Middle-Aged Men
in Seven Countries,'' Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, vol.
10, pp. 115-141, 1997.
30. Ling, W. H., and P. J. H. Jones, ``Dietary Phytosterols: A
Review of Metabolism, Benefits, and Side Effects,'' Life Sciences,
vol. 57, pp. 195-206, 1995.
31. Johansson, A., ``The Content and Composition of Sterols and
Sterol Esters in Sunflower and Poppy Seed Oils,'' Lipids, vol. 14,
pp. 285-291, 1979.
32. Johansson, A., and L. A. Appelqvist, ``The Content and
Composition of Sterols and Sterol Esters in Low Erucic Acid
Rapeseed,'' Lipids, vol. 13, pp. 658-665, 1978.
33. Johansson, A., and I. Hoffman, ``The Effect of Processing on
the Content and Composition of Free Sterols and Sterolesters in
Soybean Oil,'' Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, vol.
56, pp. 886-889, 1979.
34. Kochhar, S. P., ``Influence of Processing on Sterols of
Edible Vegetable Oils,'' Progress In Lipid Research, vol. 22, pp.
161-188, 1983.
35. Hepburn, P. A., S. A. Horner, and M. Smith, ``Safety
Evaluation of Phytosterol Esters. Part 2. Subchronic 90-Day Oral
Toxicity Study on Phytosterol Esters--A Novel Functional Food,''
Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 37, pp. 521-532, 1999.
36. Waalkens-Berendsen, D. H., A. P. M. Wolterbeek, M. V. W.
Wunands, M. Richold, and P. A. Hepburn, ``Safety Evaluation of
Phytosterol Esters. Part 3. Two-Generation Reproduction Study in
Rats with Phytosterol Esters--A Novel Functional Food,'' Food and
Chemical Toxicology, vol. 37, pp. 683-696, 1999.
37. Barnes, P. J., ``Non-Saponifiable Lipids in Cereals,'' in
Lipids in Cereal Technology, London: Academic, 1983, pp. 33-55.
38. Dutta, P. C., and L. A. Appelqvist, ``Saturated Sterols
(Stanols) in Unhydrogenated and Hydrogenated Edible Vegetable Oils
and in Cereal Lipids,'' Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, vol. 71, pp. 383-391, 1996.
39. MacMurray, T. A., and W. R. Morrison, ``Composition of
Wheat-Flour Lipids,'' Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, vol. 21, pp. 520-528, 1970.
40. Schuhmann, P., and R. Schneller, ``Method for Qualitative
and Quantitative Determination of Phytosterols in Vegetable Oils
Using LC-GC Off-Line,'' Mitt. Gebiete Lebensm. Hyg., vol. 87, pp.
708-715, 1996 (translation from German).
41. Boskou, D., ``Olive Oil Composition,'' in Olive Oil
Chemistry and Technology, Ed. D. Boskou, Champaign, IL: AOCS, pp.
52-83, 1996.
42. Cater, N. B., and S. M. Grundy, ``Lowering Serum Cholesterol
with Plant Sterols and Stanols: Historical Perspectives,'' in
Postgraduate Medicine a Special Report: New Developments in the
Dietary Management of High Cholesterol, Ed. T. T. Nguyen,
Minneapolis, MN: McGraw-Hill, November 1998, pp. 6-14.
43. Turnbull, D., M. H. Whittaker, V. H. Frankos, and D. Jonker,
``13-Week Oral Toxicity Study with Stanol Esters in Rats,''
Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, vol. 29, pp. 216-226, 1999.
44. Letter from Alan M. Rulis, FDA, to Daniel R. Dwyer,
Kleinfeld, Kaplan and Becker, April 30, 1999.
45. Letter from Daniel R. Dwyer, Kleinfeld, Kaplan and Becker,
to George H. Pauli, FDA, September 24, 1999.
46. Letter from Alan M. Rulis, FDA, to Vivian A. Chester, and
Edward B. Nelson, McNeil Consumer Healthcare, May 17, 1999.
47. Letter from John C. Young, McNeil Consumer Healthcare, to
Alan Rulis, FDA, July 21, 1999.
48. Letter from John C. Young, McNeil Consumer Healthcare, to
Alan Rulis, FDA, October 13, 1999.
49. McNeil Consumer Healthcare, ``New Dietary Ingredient
Notification--Plant Stanol Esters,'' Docket 95S-0316, Dockets
Management Branch, August 19, 1999.
50. Ross, R., ``Atherosclerosis,'' in Cecil Textbook of
Medicine, Eds. J. B. Wyndaarden, L. H. Smith, and J. C. Bennett,
Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace Jovanevich, Inc., 1992, p. 293.
[[Page 54716]]
51. Ayesh, R., J. A. Weststrate, P. N. Drewitt, and P. A.
Hepburn, ``Safety Evaluation of Phytosterol Esters. Part 5. Faecal
Short-Chain Fatty Acid and Microflora Content, Faecal Bacterial
Enzyme Activity and Serum Female Sex Hormones in Healthy
Normolipidaemic Volunteers Consuming a Controlled Diet Either With
or Without a Phytosterol Ester-Enriched Margarine,'' Food and
Chemical Toxicology, vol. 31, pp. 1127-1138, 1999.
52. Becker, M., D. Staab, and K. Von Bergmann, ``Treatment of
Severe Familial Hypercholesterolemia in Childhood with Sitosterol
and Sitostanol,'' Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 122, pp. 292-296,
1993.
53. Beveridge, J. M. R., E. F. Connel, G. A. Mayer, and H. L.
Haust, ``Plant Sterols, Degree of Saturation, and
Hypocholesterolemic Action of Certain Fats,'' Canadian Journal of
Biochemistry and Physiology, vol. 36, pp. 895-911, 1958.
54. Beveridge, J. M. R., H. L. Haust, and W. F. Connell,
``Magnitude of the Hypocholesterolemic Effect of Dietary Sitosterol
in Man,'' Journal of Nutrition, vol. 83, pp. 119-122, 1964.
55. Briones, E. R., D. Steiger, P. J. Palumbo, and B. A. Kottke,
``Primary Hypercholesterolemia: Effect of Treatment on Serum Lipids,
Lipoprotein Fractions, Cholesterol Absorption, Sterol Balance and
Platelet Aggregation,'' Mayo Clinic Proceedings, vol. 59, pp. 51-
257, 1984.
56. Farquhar, J. W., R. E. Smith, and M. E. Dempsey, ``The
Effect of Beta-Sitosterol on the Serum Lipids of Young Men with
Arteriosclerotic Heart Disease,'' Circulation, vol. 14, pp. 77-82,
1956.
57. Hendriks, H. F. J., J. A. Weststrate, T. van Vliet, and G.
W. Meijer, ``Spreads Enriched with Three Different Levels of
Vegetable Oil Sterols and the Degree of Cholesterol Lowering in
Normocholesterolaemic and Mildly Hypercholesterolaemic Subjects,''
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 53, pp. 319-27, 1999.
58. Jones, P. J., M. Raeini-Sarjaz, F. Y. Ntanios, C. A.
Vanstone, J. Y. Feng, and W. E. Parsons, ``Modulation of Plasma
Lipid Levels and Cholesterol Kinetics By Phytosterol Versus
Phytostanol Esters,'' Journal of Lipid Research, vol. 41, No. 5, pp.
697-705, 2000.
59. Kudchodkar, B. J., L. Horlick, and H. S. Sodhi, ``Effects of
Plant Sterols on Cholesterol Metabolism in Man,'' Atherosclerosis,
vol. 28, pp. 239-248, 1976.
60. Lees, A. M., H. Y. I. Mok, R. S. Lees, M. A. MsCluskey, and
S. M. Grundy, ``Plant Sterols as Cholesterol-Lowering Agents:
Clinical Trials in Patients with Hypercholesteremia and Studies of
Sterol Balance,'' Atheroscelrosis, vol. 28, pp. 325-338, 1977.
61. Maki, K. C., M. H. Davidson, D. M. Unporowicz, E. Shafer, M.
R. Dicklin, K. A. Ingram, S. Chen, J. R. McNamara, B. W. Gebhart,
and W. C. Franke, ``Lipid Responses to Plant Stero--Enriched
Reduced--Fat Spreads Incorporated into an NCEP Step 1 Diet,''
Submitted to American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1999.
62. Maki, K. C., M. H. Davidson, D. Umporowicz, E. J. Schaefer,
M. R. Dicklin, K. A. Ingram, S. Chen, B. Gebhart, and W. C. Franke,
``Lipid Responses to Plant Sterol-Enriched Reduced--Fat Spreads
Incorporated into a Step 1 Diet,'' Circulation, vol. 100, No. 18,
Supplement I, p. I-115 (abstract), November 1999.
63. Miettinen, T. A., and H. T. Vanhanen, ``Dietary Sitostanol
Related Absorption, Synthesis and Serum Level of Cholesterol in
Different Apolipoprotein E Phenotypes,'' Atheroscelrosis, vol. 105,
pp. 217-226, 1994.
64. Vanhanen, H. T., and T. A. Miettinen, ``Effects of
Unsaturated and Saturated Dietary Plant Sterols on their Serum
Contents,'' Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical
Chemistry; vol. 205, pp. 97-107, 1992.
65. Pelletier, X., S. Belbraouet, D. Mirabel, F. Mordet, J. L.
Perrin, X. Pages, and G. Derby, ``A Diet Moderately Enriched in
Phytosterols Lowers Plasma Cholesterol Concentrations in
Normocholesterolemic Humans,'' Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism,
vol. 39, pp. 291-295, 1995.
66. Pollak, O. J., ``Reduction of Blood Cholesterol in Man,''
Circulation, vol. 7, pp. 702-706, 1953.
67. Weststrate, J. A., and G. W. Meijer, ``Plant Sterol-Enriched
Margarines and Reduction of Plasma Total- and LDL-Cholesterol
Concentrations in Normocholesterolaemic and Mildly
Hypercholesterolaemic Subjects,'' European Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, vol. 52, pp. 334-343, 1998.
68. Best, M. M., and C. H. Duncan, ``Effects of the
Esterification of Supplemental Cholesterol and Sitosterol in the
Rat,'' Journal of Nutrition, vol. 65, pp. 169-181, 1958.
69. Mattson, F. H., R. A. Volpenhein, and B. A. Erickson,
``Effect of Plant Sterol Esters on Absorption of Dietary
Cholesterol,'' Journal of Nutrition, vol. 107, pp. 1139-1146, 1977.
70. Swell, L., H. Field, and C. R. Treadwell, ``Sterol
Specificity of Pancreatic Cholesterol Esterase,'' Proceedings of the
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, vol. 87, pp. 216-218,
1954.
71. Mattson, F. H., S. M. Grundy, and J. R. Crouse, ``Optimizing
the Effect of Plant Sterols on Cholesterol Absorption in Man,''
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 35, pp. 697-700, 1982.
72. Kritchevsky, D.,``Phytosterols,'' Advances in Experimental
Medicine and Biology, vol. 427, pp. 235-243, 1997.
73. Pollak, O. J., ``Effect of Plant Sterols on Serum Lipids and
Atherosclerosis,'' Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol. 31, pp. 177-
208, 1985.
74. Jones P. J., F. Y. Ntanios, M. Raeini-Sarjaz, and C. A.
Vanstone, ``Cholesterol-Lowering Efficacy of a Sitostanol-Containing
Phytosterol Mixture with a Prudent Diet in Hyperlipidemic Men,''
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 69, No. 6, pp. 1144-50,
1999.
75. Sierksma, A., J. A. Weststrate, and G. W. Meijer,``Spreads
Enriched with Plant Sterols, Either Esterified 4,4-Dimethylsterols
or Free 4-Desmethylsterols, and Plasma Total- and LDL-Cholesterol
Concentrations,'' British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 82, No. 4, pp.
273-82, 1999.
76. ICF Consulting, ``Literature Search Results for Work
Assignment 00-12 (Human Health Effects of Phytosterols on Serum
Lipids or Heart Disease),'' prepared under FDA Contract No. 223-96-
2302, Washington, DC, FDA, DHHS, April 10, 2000.
77. Hallikainen, M. A, and M. I. J. Uusitupa, ``Effects of 2
Low-Fat Stanol Ester-Containing Margarines on Serum Cholesterol
Concentrations as Part of a Low-Fat Diet in Hypercholesterolemic
Subjects,'' American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 69, pp.
403-410, 1999.
78. Gylling, H., and T. A. Miettinen, ``Cholesterol Reduction by
Different Plant Stanol Mixtures and with Variable Fat Intake,''
Metabolism, vol. 48, pp. 575-580, 1999.
79. Gylling, H., and T. A. Miettinen, ``Serum Cholesterol and
Cholesterol and Lipoprotein Metabolism in Hypercholesterolaemic
NIDDM Patients Before and During Sitostanol Ester-Margarine
Treatment,'' Diabetologia, vol. 37, pp. 773-780, 1994.
80. Andersson, A., B. KarlstroAE4m, R. Mohsen, and B. Vessby,
``Cholesterol-Lowering Effects of a Stanol Ester-Containing Low-Fat
Margarine Used in Conjunction with a Strict Lipid-Lowering Diet,''
European Heart Journal Supplements, vol. 1 (Suppl S), pp. S80-S90,
1999.
81. Blomqvist, S. M., M. Jauhiainen, A. van Tol, M. HyvoAE4nen,
I. Torstila, H. T. Vanhanen, T. A. Miettinen, and C. Ehnholm,
``Effect of Sitostanol Ester on Composition and Size Distribution of
Low- and High-Density Lipoprotein,'' Nutrition, Metabolism and
Cardiovascular Diseases, vol. 3, pp. 158-164, 1993.
82. Vanhanen, H. T., S. Blomqvist, C. Ehnholm, M. Hyvonen, M.
Jauhiainen, I. Torstila, and T. A. Miettinen, ``Serum Cholesterol,
Cholesterol Precursors, and Plant Sterols in Hypercholesterolemic
Subjects with Different apoE Phenotypes During Dietary Sitostanol
Ester Treatment,'' Journal of Lipid Research, vol. 34, pp. 1535-
1544, 1993.
83. Gylling, H., and T. A. Miettinen, ``The Effect of
Cholesterol Absorption Inhibition on Low Density Lipoprote in
Cholesterol Level,'' Atherosclerosis, vol. 117, pp. 305-308, 1995.
84. Gylling, H., and T. A. Miettinen, ``Effects of Inhibiting
Cholesterol Absorption and Synthesis on Cholesterol and Lipoprotein
Metabolism in Hypercholesterolemic Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetic
Men,'' Journal of Lipid Research, vol. 37, pp. 1776-1785, 1996.
85. Gylling, H, and T. A. Miettinen, ``Sitostanol Ester Added to
Long-Term Simvastatin Treatment of Coronary Patients with Low and
High Basal Cholesterol Absorption,'' Journal of the American College
of Cardioliogy, vol. 31, Issue 2, Supplement 1, p. 281A (abstract),
February 1998.
86. Gylling, H., R. Radhakrishnan, and T. A. Miettinen,
``Reduction of Serum Cholesterol in Postmenopausal Women with
Previous Myocardial Infarction and Cholesterol Malabsorption Induced
by Dietary Sitostanol Ester Margarine: Women and Dietary
Sitostanol,'' Circulation, vol. 96, pp. 4226-4231, 1997.
[[Page 54717]]
87. Gylling, H., M. A. Siimes, and T. A. Miettinen, ``Sitostanol
Ester Margarine in Dietary Treatment of Children with Familial
Hypercholesterolemia,'' Journal of Lipid Research, vol. 36, pp.
1807-1812, 1995.
88. Hallikainen, M. A., E. S. Sarkkinen, and M. I. J. Uusitupa,
``Plant Stanol Esters Affect Serum Cholesterol Concentrations of
Hypercholesterolemic Men and Women in a Dose-Dependent Manner,''
Journal of Nutrition, vol. 130, pp. 767-776, 2000.
89. Miettinen, T. A., P. Puska, H. Gylling, H. Vanhanen, and E.
Vartiainen, ``Reduction of Serum Cholesterol with Sitostanol-Ester
Margarine in a Mildly Hypercholesterolemic Population,'' New England
Journal of Medicine, vol. 333, pp. 1308-1312, 1995.
90. Nguyen, T. T., L. C. Dale, K. von Bergmann, and I. T.
Croghan, ``Cholesterol Lowering Effect of Stanol-Ester in a U.S.
Population of Mildly Hypercholesterolemic Men and Women,'' Mayo
Clinic Proceedings, vol. 74, pp. 1198-1206, 1999.
91. Niinikoski, H., J. Viikari, and T. Palmu, ``Cholesterol-
Lowering Effect and Sensory Properties of Sitostanol Ester Margarine
in Normocholesterolemic Adults,'' Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition,
vol. 41, pp. 9-12, 1997.
92. Plat, J., and R. P. Mensink, ``Vegetable Oil Based Versus
Wood Based Stanol Ester Mixtures: Effects on Serum Lipids and
Hemostatic Factors in Non-Hypercholesterolemic Subjects,''
Atherosclerosis, vol. 148, pp. 101-112, 2000.
93. Vanhanen, H., ``Cholesterol Malabsorption Caused by
Sitostanol Ester Feeding and Neomycin in Pravastatin-Treated
Hypercholesterolaemic Patients,'' European Journal of Clinical
Pharmacology, vol. 47, pp. 169-176, 1994.
94. Vanhanen, H. T., J. Kajander, H. Lehtovirta, and T. A.
Miettinen, ``Serum Levels, Absorption Efficiency, Faecal Elimination
and Synthesis of Cholesterol During Increasing Doses of Dietary
Sitostanol Esters in Hypercholesterolaemic Subjects,'' Clinical
Science, vol. 87, pp. 61-67, 1994.
95. Vuorio, A. F., H. Gylling, H. Turtola, K. Kontula, and T. A.
Miettinen, ``Sitostanol Ester Spread Without and With Simvastatin in
Dietary Treatment of Families Heterozygous of Familial
Hypercholesterolemia North Karelia Deletion,'' Circulation, vol. 98,
Supplement I, p. I-533 (abstract), 1998.
96. Williams, C. L., M. C. Bollella, B. A. Strobino, L. Boccia,
and L. Campanaro, ``Plant Stanol Ester and Bran Fiber in Childhood:
Effects on Lipids, Stool Weight and Stool Frequency in Preschool
Children,'' Journal of the American College of Nutrition, vol. 18,
pp. 572-581, 1999.
97. Denke, M. A., ``Lack of Efficacy of Low-Dose Sitostanol
Therapy as an Adjunct to a Cholesterol-Lowering Diet in Men with
Moderate Hypercholesterolemia,'' American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 392-6, February 1995.
98. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug
Administration, ``Guidance for Industry: Significant Scientific
Agreement in the Review of Health Claims for Conventional Foods and
Dietary Supplements; Availability (Docket No. 99D-5424),'' Federal
Register, vol. 64, No. 245, p. 71794, December 22, 1999.
99. National Cholesterol Education Program, Second Report of the
Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood
Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panell II), NIH Publication
No. 93-3-5, Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human
Services, National Institutes of Health, September 1993.
100. Law, M., ``Plant Sterol and Stanol Margarines in Health,''
British Medical Journal, vol. 320, pp. 861-864, 2000.
101. Law, M. R., M. J. Wald, and S. G. Thompson, ``By How Much
and How Quickly Does a Reduction in Serum Cholesterol Concentrations
Lower Risk of Ischaemic Heart Disease,'' British Medical Journal,
vol. 308, pp. 367-373, 1994.
102. Puska, P., M. IsokaAE4aAE4ntaAE4, V. Korpelainen, and E.
Vartiainen, ``Village Competition as an Innovative Method for
Lowering Population Cholesterol,'' in Postgraduate Medicine A
Special Report: New Developments in the Dietary Management of High
Cholesterol, Ed. T. T. Nguyen, Minneapolis, MN: McGraw-Hill,
November 1998, pp. 44-53.
103. U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary
Guidelines for Americans, 2000, 5th ed., Home and Garden Bulletin
No. 232, 2000.
104. National Center for Health Statistics, Healthy People 2000
Review, 1998-99, Hyattsville, Maryland: Public Health Service, 1999,
p. 41.
105. House of Representatives, Committee on Energy and Commerce,
``Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990,'' H. Rept. 101-538,
June 13, 1990.
106. Piironen, V., D. G. Lindsay, T. A. Miettinen, J. Toivo, and
A. Lampi, ``Plant Sterols: Biosynthesis, Biological Function and
their Importance to Human Nutrition,'' Journal of the Science of
Food and Agriculture, vol. 80, pp. 939-966, 2000.
107. U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary
Guideline for Americans, 4th ed., Home and Garden Bulletin No. 232,
1995.
108. Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2000, to the Secretary of Health
and Human Services and the Secretary of Agriculture, June 2000
(http://www.ars.usda.gov/dgac).
109. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Morbidity &
Mortality: 1998 Chartbook on Cardiovascular, Lung and Blood
Diseases, Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services,
National Institutes of Health, 1998.
110. Wester, I., ``Dose Responsiveness to Plant Stanol Esters,''
European Heart Journal Supplements, vol. 1 (Supplement S), pp. S104-
S108, 1999.
List of Subjects in 21 CFR Part 101
Food labeling, Incorporation by reference, Nutrition, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements.
Therefore, under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and under
authority delegated to the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, 21 CFR part
101 is amended as follows:
PART 101--FOOD LABELING
1. The authority citation for 21 CFR part 101 continues to read as
follows:
Authority: 15 U.S.C. 1453, 1454, 1455, 21 U.S.C. 321, 331, 342,
343, 348, 371.
2. Section 101.83 is added to subpart E to read as follows:
Sec. 101.83 Health claims: plant sterol/stanol esters and risk of
coronary heart disease (CHD).
(a) Relationship between diets that include plant sterol/stanol
esters and the risk of CHD. (1) Cardiovascular disease means diseases
of the heart and circulatory system. Coronary heart disease (CHD) is
one of the most common and serious forms of cardiovascular disease and
refers to diseases of the heart muscle and supporting blood vessels.
High blood total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol levels are associated with increased risk of developing
coronary heart disease. High CHD rates occur among people with high
total cholesterol levels of 240 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) (6.21
millimole per liter (mmol/l)) or above and LDL cholesterol levels of
160 mg/dL ( 4.13 mmol/l) or above. Borderline high risk blood
cholesterol levels range from 200 to 239 mg/dL (5.17 to 6.18 mmol/l)
for total cholesterol, and 130 to 159 mg/dL (3.36 to 4.11 mmol/l) of
LDL cholesterol.
(2) Populations with a low incidence of CHD tend to have relatively
low blood total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels. These
populations also tend to have dietary patterns that are not only low in
total fat, especially saturated fat and cholesterol, but are also
relatively high in plant foods that contain dietary fiber and other
components.
(3) Scientific evidence demonstrates that diets that include plant
sterol/stanol esters may reduce the risk of CHD.
(b) Significance of the relationship between diets that include
plant sterol/stanol esters and the risk of CHD. (1) CHD is a major
public health concern in the United States. It accounts for more deaths
than any other disease or group of diseases. Early management of risk
factors for CHD is a major public health goal that can assist in
reducing risk of CHD. High blood total and LDL cholesterol are major
modifiable risk factors in the development of CHD.
(2) The scientific evidence establishes that including plant
sterol/stanol esters in the diet helps to lower blood total and LDL
cholesterol levels.
(c) Requirements--(1) General. All requirements set forth in
Sec. 101.14 shall
[[Page 54718]]
be met, except Sec. 101.14(a)(4) with respect to the disqualifying
level for total fat per 50 grams (g) in dressings for salad and spreads
and Sec. 101.14(e)(6) with respect to dressings for salad.
(2) Specific requirements--(i) Nature of the claim. A health claim
associating diets that include plant sterol/stanol esters with reduced
risk of heart disease may be made on the label or labeling of a food
described in paragraph (c)(2)(iii) of this section, provided that:
(A) The claim states that plant sterol/stanol esters should be
consumed as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol;
(B) The claim states that diets that include plant sterol/stanol
esters ``may'' or ``might'' reduce the risk of heart disease;
(C) In specifying the disease, the claim uses the following terms:
``heart disease'' or ``coronary heart disease'';
(D) In specifying the substance, the claim uses the term ``plant
sterol esters'' or ``plant stanol esters,'' except that if the sole
source of the plant sterols or stanols is vegetable oil, the claim may
use the term ``vegetable oil sterol esters'' or ``vegetable oil stanol
esters'';
(E) The claim does not attribute any degree of risk reduction for
CHD to diets that include plant sterol/stanol esters;
(F) The claim does not imply that consumption of diets that include
plant sterol/stanol esters is the only recognized means of achieving a
reduced risk of CHD; and
(G) The claim specifies the daily dietary intake of plant sterol or
stanol esters that is necessary to reduce the risk of CHD and the
contribution one serving of the product makes to the specified daily
dietary intake level. Daily dietary intake levels of plant sterol and
stanol esters that have been associated with reduced risk of are:
(1) 1.3 g or more per day of plant sterol esters.
(2) 3.4 g or more per day of plant stanol esters.
(H) The claim specifies that the daily dietary intake of plant
sterol or stanol esters should be consumed in two servings eaten at
different times of the day with other foods.
(ii) Nature of the substance--(A) Plant sterol esters. (1) Plant
sterol esters prepared by esterifying a mixture of plant sterols from
edible oils with food-grade fatty acids. The plant sterol mixture shall
contain at least 80 percent beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and
stigmasterol (combined weight).
(2) FDA will measure plant sterol esters by the method entitled
``Determination of the Sterol Content in Margarines, Halvarines,
Dressings, Fat Blends and Sterol Fatty Acid Ester Concentrates by
Capillary Gas Chromatography,'' developed by Unilever United States,
Inc., dated February 1, 2000, the method, which is incorporated by
reference in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51, may be
obtained from the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office
of Nutritional Products, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements, Division of
Nutrition Science and Policy, 200 C St. SW., rm. 2831, Washington, DC
20204, and may be examined at the Center for Food Safety and Applied
Nutrition's Library, 200 C St. SW., rm. 3321, Washington, DC, or at the
Office of the Federal Register, 800 North Capitol St. NW., suite 700,
Washington, DC.
(B) Plant stanol esters. (1) Plant stanol esters prepared by
esterifying a mixture of plant stanols derived from edible oils or
byproducts of the kraft paper pulping process with food-grade fatty
acids. The plant stanol mixture shall contain at least 80 percent
sitostanol and campestanol (combined weight).
(2) FDA will measure plant stanol esters by the following methods
developed by McNeil Consumer Heathcare dated February 15, 2000:
``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in Benecol Tub Spread'';
``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in Benecol Dressing'';
``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in Benecol Snack Bars''; or
``Determination of Stanols and Sterols in Benecol Softgels.'' These
methods are incorporated by reference in accordance with 5 U.S.C.
552(a) and 1 CFR part 51. Copies may be obtained from the Center for
Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Nutritional Products,
Labeling, and Dietary Supplements, Division of Nutrition Science and
Policy, 200 C St., SW., rm. 2831, Washington, DC, 20204, or may be
examined at the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition's Library,
200 C St., SW., rm. 3321, Washington, DC, and at the Office of the
Federal Register, 800 North Capitol St. NW., suite 700, Washington, DC.
(iii) Nature of the food eligible to bear the claim. (A) The food
product shall contain:
(1) At least 0.65 g of plant sterol esters that comply with
paragraph (c)(2)(ii)(A)(1) of this section per reference amount
customarily consumed of the food products eligible to bear the health
claim, specifically spreads and dressings for salad, or
(2) At least 1.7 g of plant stanol esters that comply with
paragraph (c)(2)(ii)(B)(1) of this section per reference amount
customarily consumed of the food products eligible to bear the health
claim, specifically spreads, dressings for salad, snack bars, and
dietary supplements in softgel form.
(B) The food shall meet the nutrient content requirements in
Sec. 101.62 for a ``low saturated fat'' and ``low cholesterol'' food;
and
(C) The food must meet the limit for total fat in
Sec. 101.14(a)(4), except that spreads and dressings for salad are not
required to meet the limit for total fat per 50 g if the label of the
food bears a disclosure statement that complies with Sec. 101.13(h);
and
(D) The food must meet the minimum nutrient contribution
requirement in Sec. 101.14(e)(6) unless it is a dressing for salad.
(d) Optional information. (1) The claim may state that the
development of heart disease depends on many factors and may identify
one or more of the following risk factors for heart disease about which
there is general scientific agreement: A family history of CHD;
elevated blood total and LDL cholesterol; excess body weight; high
blood pressure; cigarette smoking; diabetes; and physical inactivity.
The claim may also provide additional information about the benefits of
exercise and management of body weight to help lower the risk of heart
disease.
(2) The claim may state that the relationship between intake of
diets that include plant sterol/stanol esters and reduced risk of heart
disease is through the intermediate link of ``blood cholesterol'' or
``blood total and LDL cholesterol.''
(3) The claim may include information from paragraphs (a) and (b)
of this section, which summarize the relationship between diets that
include plant sterol/stanol esters and the risk of CHD and the
significance of the relationship.
(4) The claim may include information from the following paragraph
on the relationship between saturated fat and cholesterol in the diet
and the risk of CHD: The scientific evidence establishes that diets
high in saturated fat and cholesterol are associated with increased
levels of blood total and LDL cholesterol and, thus, with increased
risk of CHD. Intakes of saturated fat exceed recommended levels in the
diets of many people in the United States. One of the major public
health recommendations relative to CHD risk is to consume less than 10
percent of calories from saturated fat and an average of 30 percent or
less of total calories from all fat. Recommended daily cholesterol
intakes are 300 mg or less per day. Scientific evidence demonstrates
that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol are associated with
[[Page 54719]]
lower blood total and LDL cholesterol levels.
(5) The claim may state that diets that include plant sterol or
stanol esters and are low in saturated fat and cholesterol are
consistent with ``Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for
Americans,'' U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Department of
Health and Human Services (DHHS), Government Printing Office (GPO).
(6) The claim may state that individuals with elevated blood total
and LDL cholesterol should consult their physicians for medical advice
and treatment. If the claim defines high or normal blood total and LDL
cholesterol levels, then the claim shall state that individuals with
high blood cholesterol should consult their physicians for medical
advice and treatment.
(7) The claim may include information on the number of people in
the United States who have heart disease. The sources of this
information shall be identified, and it shall be current information
from the National Center for Health Statistics, the National Institutes
of Health, or ``Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for
Americans,'' U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Department of
Health and Human Services (DHHS), Government Printing Office (GPO).
(e) Model health claim. The following model health claims may be
used in food labeling to describe the relationship between diets that
include plant sterol or stanol esters and reduced risk of heart
disease:
(1) For plant sterol esters: (i) Foods containing at least 0.65 g
per serving of plant sterol esters, eaten twice a day with meals for a
daily total intake of at least 1.3 g, as part of a diet low in
saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A
serving of [name of the food] supplies grams of vegetable oil sterol
esters.
(ii) Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol that include two
servings of foods that provide a daily total of at least 1.3 g of
vegetable oil sterol esters in two meals may reduce the risk of heart
disease. A serving of [name of the food] supplies grams of vegetable
oil sterol esters.
(2) For plant stanol esters: (i) Foods containing at least 1.7 g
per serving of plant stanol esters, eaten twice a day with meals for a
total daily intake of at least 3.4 g, as part of a diet low in
saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A
serving of [name of the food] supplies grams of plant stanol esters.
(ii) Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol that include two
servings of foods that provide a daily total of at least 3.4 g of
vegetable oil stanol esters in two meals may reduce the risk of heart
disease. A serving of [name of the food] supplies grams of vegetable
oil stanol esters.
Dated: August 30, 2000.
Margaret Dotzel,
Associate Commissioner for Policy.
Tables 1 and 2 to Preamble:
Note: These tables will not appear in the Code of Federal
Regulations.
[[Page 54720]]
Table 1.--Plant Sterol Esters and CHD (Studies are listed in reverse chronological order)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Study Design Population Vegetable oil sterols: dose/form Duration Dietary intakes Results
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Jones PJ, 2000 (Ref. 58) Randomized N=15 (M) hypercholesterolemic (1)Control; Run-in period NR; 21 days Subjects consumed a fixed intake Percent change in cholesterol
double-blind subjects; plasma total (2) Phytosterol esters 2.94 g/d duration on each phase: North American solid foods diet compared to control at day 21:
crossover cholesterol concentrations (1.84 g/d free); margarine control, phytosterol in a controlled feeding Total-C
balanced Latin square design. ranging from 232 mg/dL to 387 mg/ (3) Phytostanol esters 3.13 g/d ester margarine, and situation; diets formulated to phytosterol esters: -
dL. (1.84 g/d free) phytostanol ester margarine; meet Canadian recommended 9.1
Means at day 0: --in 23 g of margarine each phase followed by a 5-week nutrient intakes. phytostanol esters: -5.5
(1) Control group 2509 mg/dL meals). Total fat (% TE): 35 phytosterol esters: -13.2*
(2) Phytosterol ester group: Sterol source: vegetable oil. Saturated fat (% TE): 10 phytostanol esters: -6.4*
2477 mg/dL Cholesterol (mg/d): NR HDL-C
(3) Phytostanol ester group phytosterol esters: 0
2477 mg/dL phytostanol esters: 0
P 0.005, *P 0.02,
relative to control
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maki KC, submitted for Randomized, double-blind, three- N= 224 randomized; N= 193 (1) Control; 4 week run-in period, followed Run-in diet: NCEP Step I diet Percent change in cholesterol at
publication (Refs. 61 and arm parallel controlled study. completed study (M/F) (control (2) Low phytosterol esters (PSE) by 5 week treatment period. and a conventional 50% fat end of 5 weeks, relative to
62) N= 83; low PSE N= 75; high PSE group: 1.76 g/d (1.1 g/d free); spread; background diet: NCEP control:
N= 35) mild to moderate (3) High phytosterol esters Step I diet and a reduced-fat Total-C
hypercholesterolemics (mean group: 3.52 g/d (2.2 g/d free) (40%) spread. low PSE group: -5.2%*
baseline total cholesterol: 240 --in 14 g/d of reduced fat (40%) Dietary intake, end of study: high PSE group: -6.6%*
mg/dL). spread (two 7 g servings/d, Total Fat (% TE) LDL-C
with food). control: 29.50.8 low PSE group: -7.6%*
Sterol source: soybean oil. low PSE: 29.10.9 high PSE group: -8.1%*
high PSE: 28.81.4 HDL-C
Saturated Fat (%TE) low PSE group: 0.8%
control: 9.10.4 high PSE group: 1.6%
low PSE: 8.60.4 *P 0.001
high PSE: 9.10.6
Cholesterol (mg/d)
control: 18213
low PSE: 20316
high PSE: 19419
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54721]]
Ayesh R, 1999 (Ref. 51) Randomized placebo-controlled N=21 (10 M/ 11F) healthy (1) Control; Run-in duration: 21 days M and Controlled diet based on a Percent change in cholesterol at
dietary study. population; inclusion criteria (2) Phytosterol ester 28 days F; treatment duration: typical British diet; breakfast end of 21/28 days, relative to
at baseline for total serum 13.8 g/d (8.6 g/d free) 21 days M and 28 days F. and dinner consumed under control:
cholesterol concentration: 158 --in 40 g/d of margarine; supervision, but lunch and Total-C: -18%*
to 255 mg/dL (mean 18725 mg/dL). dinner under supervision. consumed unsupervised outside HDL-C: -7%
Sterol source: vegetable oil. the unit. *(P0.0001)
Dietary intake during study:
Total fat (% TE): 40%
Saturated fat (% TE): NR
Cholesterol (mg/day): 460
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hendriks HFJ, 1999 (Ref. Randomized, double-blind, N= 100 (42 M/ 58 F), but 80 (1) Butter (control); No run-in period; each subject Consumption of habitual Dutch Percent change in cholesterol at
57) crossover, balanced incomplete subjects for each spread (2) Spread (control); consumed 4 spreads for a period diet (self-selected diets on end of 3.5 weeks, relative to
Latin square design; 5 spreads, (incomplete Latin square design= (3) Plant sterol ester 1.33 g/d of 3.5 weeks each; wash-out study). control spread:
4 periods. 5 spreads in four periods); (0.83 g/d free); period NR. Dietary intake, end of study: Total-C
normochol-esterolemic and mildly (4) Plant sterol ester 2.58 g/d Total fat (% TE) 1.33 g/d PSE: -4.9*
cholesterolemic volunteers; (1.61 g/d free); control:33.95.6 2.58 g/d PSE: -5.9*
inclusion criteria at baseline (5) Plant sterol ester 5.18 g/d 1.33 g/d PSE: 32.95.2 LDL-C
concentration: 290 mg/dL --in 25 g/d of spread (or 2.58 g/d PSE: 33.35.5 2.58 g/d PSE: -8.5*
mean 19738 mg/dL, equivalent amount of the 5.18 g/d PSE: 33.95.5 HDL-C
2\ at lunch, \1/2\ at dinner. Saturated fat (% TE) 1.33 g/d PSE: -0.3
Sterol source: soybean and other control: 13.52.9 2.58 g/d PSE: -1.3
vegetable oil. 1.33 g/d PSE: 13.42.5 *(P 0.0001)
2.58 g/d PSE: 13.32.7
5.18 g/d PSE: 13.52.86
Cholesterol (mg/d)
control: 24558.5
1.33 g/d PSE: 24568.6
2.58 g/d PSE: 24861
5.18 g/d PSE: 26163
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54722]]
Jones PJH, 1999 (Ref. 74) Randomized double-blind placebo- N=32 (M) hypercholesterolemic (1) Control; No run-in period; experimental Controlled feeding regimen for Day 30 cholesterol (mg/dL):
controlled, parallel study. subjects (N= 16 control group, (2) Sitostanol-containing period: 30 days; 20 days all subjects; a `prudent,' Total-C
N=16 phytosterol group); phytosterols (20% sitostanol, followup after experimental fixed-food North American diet control: 23656
inclusion criteria serum total remaining plant sterols are period. formulated to meet Canadian sitostanol-containing
cholesterol concentrations sitosterol, campesterol) 1.7 g/ recommended nutrient intakes. phytosterols: 21036
between 252 to 387 mg/dL; mean d Dietary intake during study: LDL-C
cholesterol at baseline, mg/dL: --in 30 g/d of margarine Total fat (% TE): 35% control: 17652
control group 263.5 consumed during 3 meals; Saturated fat (% TE): 11% sitostanol-containing
50, phytosterol group 260.5 sterols/stanols not esterified. Cholesterol (mg/d): NR phytosterols: 13036
44.5. Sterol source: tall oil (derived (p 0.05 relative to control
from pine wood). group)
HDL-C
control: 237
sitostanol-containing
phytosterols: 267
Day 0 to day 30, percent change:
LDL-C
control: -8.9%, P 0.01
sitostanol-containing
phytosterols: -24.4%, P 0.001
sitostanol-containing
phytosterols:
-15.5%, P 0.05, relative to
control
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54723]]
Sierksma A, 1999 (Ref. 75) Balanced, double-blind crossover N=76, 75, or 74 healthy (1) Control (Flora spread); Run-in period: 1 week on control Volunteers maintained normal Cholesterol (mg/dL):
design. volunteers (39 M/37 F); baseline (2) Soybean sterols: 0.8 g/d spread; experimental period: 3 dietary patterns during study; mean (95% CI)
plasma total cholesterol levels (non-esterified); weeks each experimental period, spreads were meant to replace Total-C
310 mg/dL. (3) Sheanut oil sterols 9 weeks total; no wash-out all or part of the volunteers' control: 196 (193, 199)
(esterified): 3.3 g/d period (balanced design with habitual spread or butter used soybean sterols: 188 (186,
--in 25 g /d spread. period by group random for spreading, but not to be 191)*
Sterol source: soybean oil or allocation). used for baking or frying. sheanut sterols: 194 (191,
sheanut oil. Dietary intake during study: 197)
Total fat (% TE) LDL-C
control: 38.3 control: 122 (119, 124)
soybean sterols: 38.3 soybean sterols: 114 (112,
sheanut sterols: 38.4 116)*
Saturated fat (% TE) sheanut sterols: 119 (116,
control: 13.9 122)
soybean sterols: 13.8 HDL-C
sheanut sterols: 14.3* control: 50 (49, 50)
Cholesterol (mg/d) soybean sterols: 50 (49, 51)
control: 246 sheanut sterols: 50 (49, 51)
soybean sterols: 247 P 0.05, relative to control
sheanut sterols: 242 Percent change, relative to
*P 0.05 control:
Total-C
soybean sterols: -3.8%*
LDL-C
soybean sterols: -6%*
HDL-C: 0
* P 0.05
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54724]]
Weststrate JA, 1998 (Ref. Randomized double-blind N= 95 (100 enrolled= 50 M/ 50 F) (1) Control (Flora spread); Run-in of 5 days; each subject Volunteers were requested to Percent change in cholesterol at
67) crossover, balanced incomplete but approximately 80 subjects (2) Plant stanol esters 4.6 g/d consumed 4 margarines for a retain their normal dietary the end of 3.5 weeks, relative
Latin square design with 5 for each margarine (incomplete (2.7 g/d free); period of 3.5 weeks each; wash- pattern. to control spread:
margarines, 4 periods of 3.5 Latin square design= 5 (3) Soybean sterol esters 4.8 g/ out period between experimental Dietary intake during study: Total-C
weeks. margarines in four periods); d (3 g/d free); periods- NR. Total fat (% TE) plant stanol esters: -7.3*
normocholesterolemic and mildly (4) Ricebran sterols 1.6 g/d control: 42 soybean sterol esters: -8.3*
hyperchol-esterolemic subjects; (5) Sheanut sterols 2.9 g/d; plant stanol esters: 41.8 ricebran sterols: -1.1
inclusion criteria at baseline --in 30 g/d of margarine, soybean sterol esters: 41.5 sheanut sterols: -0.7
for total plasma cholesterol consumption at lunch and ricebran sterols: 41.4 LDL-C
concentration: 310 mg/dL dinner; margarine replaced sheanut sterols: 41.3 plant stanol esters: -13*
(baseline total cholesterol: margarines habitually used. Saturated fat (%TE) soybean sterol esters: -13*
mean 20741 mg/dL). Sterol source: soybean, ricebran control: 15.9 ricebran sterols: -1.5
and sheanut. plant stanol esters: 16.2 sheanut sterols: -0.9
soybean sterol esters: 15.3 HDL-C
ricebran sterols: 15.4 plant stanol esters: 0.1
sheanut sterols: 16.9 soybean sterol esters: 0.6
Cholesterol (mg/d) ricebran sterols: -1.3
control: 233; sheanut sterols: -1.2
plant stanol esters: 243 *P 0.05
soybean sterol esters: 226
ricebran sterols: 233
sheanut sterols: 227
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pelletier X, 1995 (Ref. Randomized, crossover design N= 12 normolipidic healthy men (1) Group 1: 4 weeks normal diet 1 week run-in period and two Subjects on a controlled diet, Percent change in cholesterol at
65) (blinding NR). (baseline cholesterol levels followed by 4 weeks plant experimental periods of 4 weeks but diet is a ``normal'' diet. end of 4 weeks, plant sterol-
NR). sterol-enriched diet 0.740 g/d; each; wash-out period NR. Dietary intake, during study: enriched butter relative to
(2) Group 2: 4 weeks plant Total fat (% TE) control butter:
sterol-enriched diet 0.740 g/d Period 1: 36.47.1 Total-C
followed by 4 weeks normal diet Period 2: 36.46.9 -10%*
--in 50 g/d of butter; plant Saturated fat (% TE) LDL-C
sterols are not esterified. Control: NR -15%*
Sterol source: soybean oil. Plant Sterol: NR HDL-C
Cholesterol (mg/d) +4.6%
Control: 436 P 0.001
Plant Sterol: 410
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54725]]
Miettinen, TA, 1994 (Ref. Randomized, placebo-controlled, N= 31 (22 M/ 9 F) (control N= 8; (1) Rapeseed oil (RSO) control; 6 week run-in period; 9 week No diet changes other than Change in cholesterol from end
63) (same as or partial double-blind study. sitosterol N= 9; sitostanol N= (2) Sitosterol 0.7 g/d; study period. replacing 50 g of typical daily of run-in period to end of 9
study of Vanhanen HT, 7; sitostanol ester N= 7); (3) Sitostanol 0.7 g/d; fat by 50 g of RSO mayonnaise. week study period (mg/dL):
1992 (Ref. 64)) hypercholesterolemic subjects; (4) Sitostanol ester 1.36 g/d Dietary intake at end of study Total-C
inclusion criteria at baseline (0.8 g/d free) for all subjects: RSO control: +4.64.3
concentration: >232 mg/dL. Sterol source: NR. 1149 sitosterol: -7.75.0
12.40.7% sitostanol: -0.45.4
32628 sitostanol ester: -7.43.1
LDL-C
RSO control: +3.14.3
sitosterol: -7.04.3
sitostanol: -1.24.6
sitostanol ester: -7.73.1*
HDL-C
RSO control: +2.31.2
sitosterol: +0.001.5
sitostanol: +2.31.5
sitostanol ester: +2.30.8*
*P 0.05, relative to run-in
P 0.05, relative to RSO
control
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vanhanen HT, 1992 (Ref. Placebo-controlled, randomized, N=24 (M and F) (control group n= (1) Rapeseed oil control; 6 week run-in on rapeseed oil On average 50 g of visible Percent change in cholesterol at
64) (same as or partial double-blind study. 8; sitosterol group n= 9; (2) Sitosterol: 0.625 or 0.722 g/ spread; 9 week period. dietary fat as butter, end of 9 week study period,
study of Miettinen TA, sitostanol group n=7) d; margarine, milk fat, sausages relative to control:
1994 (Ref. 63)) hypercholesterolemic individuals (3) Sitostanol:0.630 g/d and cheeses was replaced by the Total-C
(serum cholesterol> 232 mg/dL). --in 50 g/d of rapeseed oil fat spread. sitosterol group: -7.6 (NS)
mayonnaise; plant sterols/ Dietary intake during study: sitostanol group: -9.7 (NS)
stanols are not esterified. Total fat: NR Cholesterol at end of study (mg/
Sterol source: rapeseed oil. Saturated fat: NR dL):
Cholesterol: NR Total-C
control: 23910
sitosterol group: 22113
sitostanol group: 2169
all NS
LDL-C: NR
HDL-C: NR
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54726]]
Table 1. Plant Sterol Esters and CHD-continued
Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Table
d day
d deciliter
CI confidence interval
F female
g gram
HDL-C serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol level
LDL-C serum low in density lipoprotein cholesterol level
M male
mg miligram
N number
NCEP National Cholesterol Education Program
NR not reported
NS not statistically significant
% percent
P probability of type 1 error
PSE phytosterol ester
TE total energy
Total-C serum total cholesterol level
RSO rapseed oil (or canola oil)
X times
[[Page 54727]]
Table 2.--Plant Stanol Esters and CHD (studies are listed in reverse chronological order)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Study Design Population Plant stanol: dose/form Duration Dietary intakes Results
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hallikainen MA, Randomized single-blind, N= 22 (M/F) (1) Control; Run-in duration: 1 week Subjects followed a Cholesterol after test (mg/
2000 (Ref. 88) crossover design (dose- hypercholesterolemic (2) Plant stanol esters period; 5 test periods of standardized background dL):
dependent study). subjects; inclusion 1.4 g/d, (0.8 g/d free); 4 weeks each; no washout diet throughout the study. Total-C
criteria: serum total (3) Plant stanol esters between periods. Dietary intake during control: 25240
ranging from 193.5 to 329 (4) Plant stanol esters Total fat (% TE) 1.4 g/d: 24545
266 50 mg/dL). (5) Plant stanol esters minus>4.9 2.7 g/d: 23538*
--in 25 g of margarine minus>4.9 4.1 g/d: 22536*
portions with meals. minus>4.3 5.4 g/d: 22330*
All subjects followed the minus>5.4 LDL-C
same dosage order; the 5.4 g/d: 33.54.2 minus>37
randomly determined as Saturated fat (% TE) 1.4 g/d: 16839
(control) and 0.8 g/d. minus>2.2 2.7 g/d: 16134
minus>1.9 4.1 g/d: 15329*
minus>1.3 5.4 g/d: 15127*
minus>2.1 HDL-C
5.4 g/d: 9.312
minus>2.2 1.4 g/d: 5812
Cholesterol (mg/d) 2.7 g/d: 5912
control: 158 4.1 g/d: 5814
1.4 g/d: 179 5.4 g/d: 5812
2.7 g/d: 155 Percent change, relative to
4.1 g/d: 153 control:
5.4 g/d: 177 Total-C
1.4 g/d: -2.8%
2.7 g/d: -6.8% *
4.1 g/d: -10.3% *
5.4 g/d: -11.3% *
LDL-C
1.4 g/d: -1.7%
2.7 g/d: -5.6%
4.1 g/d: -9.7% *
5.4 g/d: -10.4% *
*P 20 0.001 or
P 0.05 vs control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Jones PJ, 2000 Randomized double-blind N=15 (M) (1)Control; Run-in period NR; 21 days Subjects consumed a fixed Percent change in
(Ref. 58) crossover balanced Latin hypercholesterolemic (2) Phytosterol esters2.94 duration on each phase: intake North American cholesterol from control
square design. subjects; plasma total g/d (1.84 g/d free); margarine control, solid foods diet in a at day 21:
cholesterol concentrations (3) Phytostanol esters3.31 phytosterol ester controlled feeding Total-C
ranging from 232 mg/dL to g/d (1.84 g/d free) margarine, and phytostanol situation; diets phytosterol esters: -9.1
387 mg/dL. --in 23 g of margarine ester margarine; each formulated to meet phytostanol esters: -5.5
Means at day 0: (margarine consumed 3X/d phase followed by a 5-week Canadian recommended LDL-C
(1) Control group 2509 mg/dL Stanol source: vegetable Dietary intake during *
(2) Phytosterol ester oil. study: phytostanol esters: -6.4*
group: 2477 mg/ Total fat (% TE): 35 HDL-C
dL Saturated fat (% TE): 10 phytosterol esters: 0
(3) Phytostanol ester group Cholesterol (mg/d): NR phytostanol esters: 0
2477 mg/dL P 0.005, *P 0.02, relative
to control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54728]]
Plat J, 2000 (Ref. Randomized double-blind, N= 112 (41 M/71 F) non- (1) Control; Run-in duration: 4 weeks; Subjects consumed usual Change in cholesterol from
92) placebo-controlled study. hypercholesterolemic (2) Pine wood stanol esters experimental period: 8 habitual diet with the run-in to experimental
subjects (control N= 42, 6.8 g/d (4 g/d free); weeks. exception that 30 g of period (mg/dL):
pine wood stanol esters N= (3) Vegetable oil stanol test margarine and Total-C
34, vegetable oil stanol esters 6.8 g/d (3.8 g/d shortening replaced 30 g control: -1.615.5
criteria: serum total --in 20 g of rapeseed oil Dietary intake during wood stanol esters: -
cholesterol concentrations margarine plus 10 g of study: 16.315.1*
252 mg/dL. rapeseed oil shortening Total fat (% TE) vegetable stanol esters:
per day. control: 39.210.8*
Stanol source: pine wood minus>4.2 LDL-C
based or vegetable oil. wood stanol esters: control: -2.33.8 minus>14.3
vegetable stanol esters: wood stanol esters: -
40.14.1 15.913.9*
Saturated fat (% TE) vegetable stanol esters:
control: 14.310.1*
minus>2.0 HDL-C
wood stanol esters: control: 0.41.6 minus>6.2
vegetable stanol esters: wood stanol esters:
13.62.2 0.45.0
Cholesterol (mg/d) vegetable stanol esters:
control: 221.5 0.04.3
wood stanol esters: 238.5 Percent change, relative to
vegetable stanol esters: control:
239.5 Total-C
wood stanol esters: -
8.17.5%*
vegetable stanol esters:
8.6 5.1%*
LDL-C
wood stanol esters: -
12.811.2%*
vegetable stanol esters:
14.6 8.0%*
* P 0.001 relative to
control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54729]]
Andersson A, 1999 Randomized double-blind N= 61 (28 M/33 F) (1) Controlled lipid- Run-in period: 4 weeks; Subjects consumed either Percent change in
(Ref. 80) study. moderately lowering diet (test diet) experimental period: 8 usual diet (control diet) cholesterol from baseline:
hypercholesterolemic + low fat margarine weeks. or controlled feeding Total-C
subjects (control margarine); lipid lowering diet (test test diet+control
((1) test diet+control (2) Controlled lipid- diet) during study. margarine: -8*
margarine: N= 21 lowering diet (test diet) Calculated /food analysis test diet+test margarine:
(2) test diet+test + a low fat 3.4 g/d stanol nutrient composition of -15*
margarine: N= 19 ester (2g/d free)- test diet: control diet+test
(3) usual diet+test containing margarine (test Total fat (%TE): 35 margarine: -9*
margarine: N= 21); margarine); Saturated fat (%TE): 8 LDL-C
inclusion criteria: serum (3) Usual diet (control Cholesterol(mg/d): 171 test diet+control
total cholesterol levels diet)+ a low fat 3.4 g/d Estimated (dietary records) margarine: -12*
at screening >194 mg/dL; stanol ester (2g/d free)- nutrient composition of test diet+test margarine:
mean serum cholesterol at containing margarine (test control diet: -19*
baseline: 26444; exclusion --in 25 g/d (use 3X per 31.84.6 margarine: -12*
criteria: serum day) of low fat (40% fat) Saturated fat (%TE): HDL-C
cholesterol > 330 mg/dL at margarine made from low 11.92.2 test diet+control
screening. erucic acid rapeseed Cholesterol (mg/d): margarine: -4
(canola) oil. 279104 test diet+test margarine:
Stanol source: NR. -7
control diet+test
margarine: 0
*P 0.0001; P
0.0005, relative to
baseline
Percent change (P value)
for differences between
test diet+test margarine
relative to test
diet+control margarine:
Total-C: -12% (P -0.0035)
LDL-C: -15% (P -0.0158)
HDL-C: 0% (P 0.1226)
Percent change (P value)
for differences between
test diet+test margarine
relative to usual diet+
test margarine:
Total-C: -4% (P 0.0059)
LDL-C: -6% (P 0.0034)
HDL-C: -6% (P 0.0-3)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54730]]
Gylling H, 1999 Margarine study: randomized N=23 during margarine (1) Sitostanol ester Run-in period: 1 week; the Subjects were advised to Cholesterol at end of
(Ref. 78) double-blind crossover period, N= 21 during margarine 5.4 g/d (3.18 g/ margarine interventions replace 25 g of their period (mg/dL):
study; after the margarine butter period; moderately day free) (wood oil); lasted 6 weeks, the butter normal dietary fat with Total-C
period the same women were hypercholesterolemic (2) Campestanol ester interventions lasted 5 stanol ester margarine or run-in home diet:
randomized to the Butter postmenopausal women; margarine 5.7 g/d (3.16 g/ weeks; a washout period of butter with or without 2356
study, which is a inclusion criteria: serum d free) (vegetable oil); 8 weeks separated the stanol esters. sitostanol ester
randomized double-blind cholesterol between 213 (3) Butter control; margarine and butter Dietary intake during margarine: 2247*
4.1 g/d (2.43 g/d free) Total fat (g/d) campestanol ester
(wood oil) margarine period: 936 minus>7*
butter. butter period: 976 minus>8*
vegetable oil. Saturated fat sitostanol ester butter:
margarine period: NR 2287
butter period: NR LDL-C
Cholesterol (mg/d) run-in home diet:
margarine period: 1545
26219 sitostanol ester
butter period: 32319 minus>5*
campestanol ester
margarine: 1397*
butter control: 1617
sitostanol ester butter:
1436
HDL-C
run-in home diet: 603.5
sitostanol ester
margarine: 634*
campestanol ester
margarine: 633*
butter control: 634*
sitostanol ester butter:
634
Percent change from butter
control:
Total-C
sitostanol ester butter:
8%
LDL-C
sitostanol ester butter:
12%
*Significantly different
from run-in home diet, P
0.05;
Significantly
different from butter, P
0.05
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54731]]
Hallikainen MA, Randomized double-blind, N= 55 (M/F); (1) Control margarine; Run-in period: 4 week; Subjects consumed the Change in cholesterol from
1999 (Ref. 77) placebo-controlled, hypercholesterolemic (2) WSEM 3.9 g/d (2.31 g/d experimental period: 8 margarines as part of a week 0 to week 8 (mg/dL):
parallel study. subjects free); weeks. diet resembling that of Total-C
((1)control margarine N= 6 (3) VOSEM 3.9 g/d (2.16 g/d the National Cholesterol control: -18.619
(2) wood stanol ester- --in 25 g low-erucic acid II diet. WSEM: -46.823.6*
(WSEM) N= 8 M, 10 F, 35% fat) margarine per study: VOSEM: -3822.8
ester-containing margarine Stanol source: wood or control: 26.53.1 control: -17.43.3 minus>22.8
total cholesterol VOSEM: 25.617
concentrations between 2- minus>3.9 VOSEM: -3119.4
cholesterol at baseline, control: 7.31.6 control: 0.41.4 minus>5.8
minus>25 VOSEM: 6.81.7 WSEM: -1.26.6
WSEM group 2467
minus>29; VOSEM group control: 135 Percent change, relative to
23831. WSEM: 164 control:
VOSEM: 139 Total-C
WSEM: -10.6%*
VOSEM: -8.1%
LDL-C
WSEM: 13.7%
VOSEM: 8.6%
Significantly different
from control group: *P
0.001, P 0.05,
P 0.01
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Jones PJH, 1999 Randomized double-blind N=32(M) (1) Control; No run-in period; Controlled feeding regimen Day 30 cholesterol (mg/dL):
(Ref. 74) placebo-controlled, hypercholesterolemic (2) Sitostanol-containing experimental period: 30 for all subjects, a Total-C
parallel study. subjects (N= 16 control phytosterols (20% days; 20 days followup `prudent,' fixed-food control: 23656
group); inclusion criteria plant sterols are formulated to meet sitostanol-containing
serum total cholesterol sitosterol, campesterol) Canadian recommended phytosterols: 21036
to 387 mg/dL; mean --in 30 g/d of margarine Dietary intake during LDL-C
cholesterol at baseline, consumed during 3 meals; study: control: 17652
263.550, esterified. Saturated fat (% TE): 11% sitostanol-containing
phytosterol group 260.5 Sterol source: tall oil Cholesterol (mg/d): NR phytosterols: 13044.5. (derived from pine wood) minus>36
(p 0.05 relative to
control group)
HDL-C
control: 237
sitostanol-containing
phytosterols: 267
Day 0 to day 30 (% change):
LDL-C
control: -8.9%, P 0.01
sitostanol-containing
phytosterols: -24.4%, P
0.001
sitostanol-containing
phytosterols:
-15.5%, P 0.05, relative
to control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54732]]
Nguyen TT, 1999 Multicenter, randomized N= 298 (51% M/ 49% F) (1) Control: US Run-in period: 4 weeks; Usual dietary habits Percent change in
(Ref. 90) double-blind, placebo- mildly reformulation of vegetable experimental period: 8 maintained, but some cholesterol from baseline
controlled parallel study. hypercholesterolemic oil spread; weeks. subjects on a NCEP Step I to week 8:
subjects; (2) EU 3G: 5.1 g/d stanol diet, so background diets Total-C
((1) control N= 76, (2) EU esters (3g/d free) varied, but diet control: 0.5*
3G N=74, (3) US 3G N= 71, European formulation of composition reported not EU 3G: -4.7*
(4) US 2G N= 77); vegetable oil spread; to differ among the four US 3G: -6.4*
inclusion criteria serum (3) US 3G: 5.1 g/d stanol groups. US 2G: -4.1*
total cholesterol esters (3 g/d free) US Dietary intake during LDL-C
concentrations between 200 reformulation of vegetable study: control: 0.1*
to 280 mg/dL; mean oil spread; Total fat (% TE): 32.8 EU 3G: -5.2*
baseline total (4) US 2G: 3.4 g/d stanol (6.8) US 3G: -10.1*
cholesterol: 23320 mg/dL. reformulation of vegetable (3.0) HDL-C
oil spread Cholesterol (mg/d): 234 control: 2.0
--in 24 g/d spread (three 8 (147) EU 3G: 0.0
g servings a day). US 3G: 0.0
Stanol source: wood. US 2G: 0.0
*P 0.001, relative to
baseline
Total-C (P 0.001) and LDL-
C (P 0.02) levels were
significantly reduced in
all 3 active-ingredient
groups compared with the
placebo group at all time
points during the
ingredient phase. (see
figures in paper for
values)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54733]]
Weststrate JA, Randomized double-blind N= 95 (100 enrolled= 50 M/ (1) Control (Flora spread); Run-in of 5 days; each Volunteers were requested Percent change in
1998 (Ref. 67) crossover balanced 50 F) but approximately 80 (2) Plant stanol esters 4.6 subject consumed 4 to retain their normal cholesterol at end of 3.5
incomplete Latin square subjects for each g/d (2.7 g/d free); margarines for a period of dietary pattern. weeks, relative to
design with 5 margarines, margarine (incomplete (3) Soybean sterol esters 3.5 weeks each; wash-out Dietary intake during control:
4 periods of 3.5 weeks. Latin square design= 5 4.8 g/d (3 g/d free); period between study: Total-C
margarines in four (4) Ricebran sterols 1.6 g/ experimental periods- NR. Total fat (% TE) plant stanol esters: -
periods); d free; control: 42 7.3*
normocholesterolemic and (5) Sheanut sterols 2.9 g/d plant stanol esters: 41.8 soybean sterol esters: -
mildly hyperchol- free soybean sterol esters: 8.3*
esterolemic subjects; --in 30 g/d of margarine, 41.5 ricebran sterols: -1.1
inclusion criteria at consumption at lunch and ricebran sterols: 41.4 sheanut sterols: -0.7
baseline for total plasma dinner; margarines sheanut sterols: 41.3 LDL-C
cholesterol concentration: replaced margarines Saturated fat (%TE) plant stanol esters: -13*
310 mg/dL (baseline total habitually used. control: 15.9 soybean sterol esters: -
cholesterol: mean 207 Stanol source: wood. plant stanol esters: 16.2 13*
41mg/dL). soybean sterol esters: ricebran sterols: -1.5
15.3 sheanut sterols: -0.9
ricebran sterols: 15.4 HDL-C
sheanut sterols: 16.9 plant stanol esters: 0.1
Cholesterol (mg/d) soybean sterol esters:
control: 233 0.6
plant stanol esters: 243 ricebran sterols: -1.3
soybean sterol esters: sheanut sterols: -1.2
226 *P 0.05
ricebran sterols: 233
sheanut sterols: 227
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Niinikoski H, 1997 Randomized double-blind, N=24 (M/F) (1) Control; No run-in period; Subjects were advised to Cholesterol change from
(Ref. 91) placebo-controlled study. normocholesterolemic (2) Sitostanol ester 5.1 g/ experimental period: 5 replace normal dietary fat baseline to 5 weeks (mg/
subjects (N=12 (4 M/8 F) d (3 g/d free); weeks. for 5 weeks with the study dL):
control, N=12 (4 M/8 F) --in 24 g of a RSO based margarine; the amount and Total-C
sitostanol ester); margarine to be used on quality of ingested fat control: -11.619.4
cholesterol: 19738.7 mg/dL. portions over the day. Dietary intake during minus>19.4*
Stanol source: NR. study: Non-HDL-C
Total fat: NR control: -11.619.4
Cholesterol: NR sitostanol ester: -3123*
HDL-C
control: -1.5 6.6
sitostanol ester: -2.34.6
*P 0.05, relative to
control
[[Page 54734]]
Denke MA., 1995 Fixed sequence design with N= 33 (M) moderate (1) Control (Step 1 Diet 1 month run-in on Step I Subjects were instructed to Cholesterol, at end of each
(Ref. 97) three sequential hypercholesterolemic alone); Diet; experimental follow a cholesterol- period (mg/dL):
experimental periods. subjects; total (2) Plant stanol 3 g/d + periods: 3 months in lowering diet in which Total-C
cholesterol concentration Step 1 Diet; duration; washout period: dietary cholesterol was control: 23929
after run-in period: (3) Washout (Step 1 Diet 1 month. restricted to 200 mg/d plant stanol + Step I Diet:
23929. alone) (Step I Diet). 23831
--plant stanol was Dietary intake (self- washout: 24429
suspended in safflower oil reported intake): LDL-C
and packed into gelatin Total fat (%TE): 30 control: 17526
capsules, each capsule Saturated fatty acids plant stanol + Step I Diet:
containing 250 mg (%TE): 10 17231
sitostanol and 1 g of Cholesterol (mg/d): 188 washout: 18130
safflower oil; subjects HDL-C
instructed to consume 4 control: 3911
capsules per meal plant stanol + Step I Diet:
(subjects were to consume 4112
a total of 12 capsules (3 washout: 3911
g) in three divided doses NS differences between any
during three meals); plant period.
stanols not esterified.
Stanol source: tall oil.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54735]]
Miettinen TA, 1995 Randomized double-blind, N= 153 (42% M/ 58% F) (N= (1) Control margarine; Run-in period: 6 weeks; During the study subjects Cholesterol concentration
(Ref. 89) placebo-controlled study. 51 control margarine, (2) Sitostanol ester 5.1 g/ experimental period: 1 were advised to replace 24 at 1 year (mg/dL):
N=102 test margarine) mild d (3 g/d free) for 1 year; year; after 6 months the g per day of their normal Total-C
hypercholesterolemic (3) Sitostanol ester 5.1 g/ sitostanol-ester group was dietary fat with a control: 2374
subjects; inclusion d (3 g/d free) for 6 randomly reassigned either margarine containing RSO, 4.4 g/d stanol ester:
criteria: serum months, followed by to continue their intake according to careful 2104*
cholesterol concentration sitostanol ester 3.4 g/d of 4.4 g/d of sitostanol instructions from a 3.1 g/d stanol ester:
216 mg/dL. (2 g/d free) for next 6 ester (N= 51) or to reduce qualified nurse, otherwise 2144*
months their intake to 3.1 g/d typical ad libitum diet LDL-C
--in 24 g/d margarine. (N= 51); subjects were not during study. control: 1574
Actual intake of sitostanol informed of this change in Dietary intake during 4.4 g/d stanol ester:
ester sitostanol ester intake. study: 1343*
for 5.1 g/d: 4.4 g/d Total fat (%TE) 3.1 g/d stanol ester:
for 3.4 g/d: 3.1 g/d. control: 34.93*
Stanol source: wood. minus>0.9 HDL-C
4.4 g/d stanol ester: control: 542
35.70.8 4.4 g/d stanol ester:
3.1g/d stanol ester: 531
34.80.9 3.1 g/d stanol ester:
Saturated fat (%TE) 582
control: 13.90.5 baseline
4.4 g/d stanol ester: Mean change after 1 year
14.40.4 (mg/dL):
3.1 g/d stanol ester: Total-C
14.30.7 control: -1
Cholesterol (mg/d) 4.4 g/d stanol ester: -25*
control: 31427 (difference -24 (95% CI: -
4.4 g/d stanol ester: 17 to -32))
34037 LDL-C
3.1 g/d stanol ester: control: -3
30820 4.4 g/d stanol ester: -24*
(difference -21 (95% CI: -
14 to -29))
HDL-C
control: 0.0
4.4 g/d stanol ester: 0.4
*P 0.001, relative to
control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54736]]
Miettinen, T A, Randomized placebo- N= 31 (22 M/ 9 F) (control (1) RSO control; 6 week run-in period; 9 No diet changes other than Change in cholesterol from
1994 (Ref. 63) controlled, double-blind N= 8; sitosterol N= 9; (2) Sitosterol 0.7 g/d; week study period. replacing 50 g of typical end of run-in period to
(same as or study. sitostanol N= 7; (3) Sitostanol 0.7 g/d; daily fat by 50 g of RSO end of 9 week study period
partial study of sitostanol ester N= 7); (4) Sitostanol ester 1.36 g/ mayonnaise. (mg/dL):
Vanhanen HT, 1992 hypercholesterolemic d (0.8 g/d free) Dietary intake at end of Total-C
(Ref. 64)) subjects; inclusion --in 50 g/d of RSO study for all subjects: RSO control: 4.64.3
total serum cholesterol Stanol source: NR. 1149 sitosterol: -7.7 232 mg/ Saturated fat (% of total minus>5.0
dL. fat) sitostanol: -0.40.7% minus>5.4
Cholesterol (mg/d) sitostanol ester: -7.428 minus>3.1
LDL-C
RSO control: 3.14.3
sitosterol: -7.04.3
sitostanol: -1.24.6
sitostanol ester: -7.73.1*
HDL-C
RSO control: 2.31.2
sitosterol: 0.001.5
sitostanol: 2.31.5
sitostanol ester: 2.30.8*
*P 0.05, relative to run-
in
P 0.05, relative
to RSO control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54737]]
Vanhanen HT, 1994 Randomized double-blind, N= 15 (11M/ 4 F) mildly (1) Control (RSO Run-in period: 6 weeks; Subjects replaced 50 g of Cholesterol change from
(Ref. 94) placebo-controlled study. hypercholesterolemic mayonnaise); experimental period: 15 their usual dietary fat by baseline (mg/dL):
subjects (N= 8 control (2) Sitostanol ester 1.36 g/ weeks; lower dose 50 g of RSO mayonnaise, Total-C
group, d (0.8 g/d free); sitostanol for 9 weeks, otherwise usual diet. control: 55
N= 7 sitostanol group); (3) Sitostanol ester 3.4 g/ followed by higher dose Dietary intake during run- 1.36 g/d: -7.43.1
selection criteria > 232 --in 50 g/d of RSO similar to the control: 8.15.4
mg/dL. mayonnaise. experimental period): 3.4 g/d: -11.2
Stanol source: NR. Total fat (g/d): 3.5*
control group: 124 LDL-C
sitostanol group: 118 control: 3.14.6
Saturated fat: 1.36 g/d: -7.73.1*
sitostanol group: NR control: 5.85.4
Cholesterol (mg/day): 3.4 g/d: -15.12.7*
sitostanol group: 265 HDL-C
control: 2.31.2
1.36 g/d: 2.30.8
control: 0.81.9
3.4 g/d: 2.71.5
Percent change, relative to
control:
Total-C
1.36 g/d: -4.1%
3.4 g/d: -9.3%
TLDL-C
1.36 g/d: -10.3%
3.4 g/d: -15.2%
HDL-C
1.36 g/d: 0.5%
3.4 g/d: 0%
*P 0.05, relative to
baseline
P 0.05, relative to
control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Blomqvist SM, 1993 Randomized double-blind, N= 67 (47 M/ 20 F) (1) Control (RSO Run-in period: 4 weeks; Subjects replaced 50 g of Cholesterol after 6 weeks
(Ref. 81) placebo-controlled study. moderately mayonnaise); experimental period: 6 daily fat intake with 50 g (mg/dL):
(same as Vanhanen hypercholesterolemic (2) Sitostanol ester 5.8 g/ weeks. of RSO mayonnaise; a Total-C
HT, 1993 (Ref. subjects (N= 66 in d (3.4 g/d free) second 7-day diet record control: 22527
82)) Tables: control N=32; --in 50 g RSO mayonnaise. performed during the sitostanol ester: 2-34*
plasma cholesterol indicated that diet LDL-C
concentration at baseline: composition was similar to control: 13418
246 33 mg/dL. that during the run-in sitostanol ester: 12432
Dietary intake during the HDL-C
standardization period control: 5311
(run-in): sitostanol ester: 5112*
Saturated fat (% TE): 12 P 0.01; * P
Cholesterol (mg/d): 270 0.001, relative to control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54738]]
Vanhanen HT, 1993 PRandomized double-blind, N= 67 (47 M/ 20 F) (1) Control (RSO Run-in period: 4 weeks; Subjects replaced 50 g of Cholesterol change from
(Ref. 82) placebo-controlled study. moderately mayonnaise); experimental period: 6 daily fat intake with 50 g baseline period, mg/dL
(same as hypercholesterolemic (2) Sitostanol ester 5.8 g/ weeks. of RSO mayonnaise; a (cholesterol concentration
Blomqvist SM, subjects; (control N=33; d (3.4 g/d free) second 7-day diet record at 6 weeks in mg/dL):
1993 (Ref. 81)) sitostanol ester N=34); --in 50 g RSO mayonnaise. performed during the Total-C
serum cholesterol Stanol source: NR. experimental period control: -2.7 232 indicated that diet minus>2.3 (225)
mg/dL. composition was similar to itostanol ester: -17.02.3* (2-)
period. LDL-C
Dietary intake during the control: -1.52.7 (142)
(run-in): sitostanol ester: -
Total fat (% TE): 37 14.32.3* (130)
Saturated fat (% TE): 12 HDL-C
Cholesterol (mg/d): 270 control: -1.20.8 (53)
sitostanol ester: -1.20.8 (52)
*P 0.05, relative to
control
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vanhanen HT, 1992 Placebo-controlled, N=24 (M and F) (control (1) RSO control; 6 week run-in on RSO On average 50 g of visible Percent change in
(Ref. 64) (same randomized double blind group N= 8; sitosterol (2) Sitosterol: 0.625 or spread; 9 week period. dietary fat as butter, cholesterol at end of 9
as or partial study. group N= 9; sitostanol 0.722 g/d; margarine, milk fat, week study period,
study of group N=7) (3) Sitostanol: 0.630 g/d sausages and cheeses was relative to control:
Miettinen, TA, hypercholesterolemic --in 50 g/d of RSO replaced by the fat Total-C
1994 (Ref. 63)) individuals (serum mayonnaise; plant sterols/ spread. sitosterol group: -7.6(NS)
cholesterol > 232 mg/dL). stanols are not Dietary intake during sitostanol group: -9.7(NS)
esterified. study: At end of study (mg/dL):
Stanol source: rapeseed Total fat: NR Total-C
oil. Saturated fat: NR control: 23910
Cholesterol: NR sitosterol group: 22113
sitostanol group: 2169
all NS
LDL-C: NR
HDL-C: NR
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 54739]]
Table 2.--Plant Stanol Esters and CHD--continued
Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in Table
d day
dl deciliter
CI confidence interval
EU European
EU 3G European, 3 grams
F female
g gram
HDL-C serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol level
LDL-C serum low density lipoprotein cholesterol level
M male
mg milligram
N number
NCEP National Cholesterol Education Program
NR not reported
NS not statistically significant
% percent
P probability of type I error
TE total energy
Total-C serum total cholesterol level
RSO rapeseed oil (or canola oil)
US United States
US 2G United States, 2 grams
US 3G United States, 3 grams
VOSEM vegetable oil stanol ester-containing margarine
WSEM wood stanol ester-containing margarine
X times
[FR Doc. 00-22892 Filed 9-5-00; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4160-01-F